Moliere (French playwright and actor) statue in Paris, France (Getty Images)
In L’Impromptu de Versailles, 3, I included a quotation that prefigures Le Misanthrope. Alceste, the Misanthrope, depicts the court. A courtier swears he will do everything for another courtier, but it is mere politeness. Minutes later, he will be backbiting.
I suggested skipping this quotation because of its length. However, I decided to shorten the quotation and include it in full in a separate post. In this quotation, Molière, the director, le metteur en scène, is giving directions to the actor who will play Molière in the comedy the King commissioned, but he denigrates court as Alceste would. The fictitious Molière speaks as will Alceste two years later. The material of this post is the full quotation and its translation by Henri van Laun. Molière’s words as director are coloured.
Attendez, il faut marquer davantage tout cet endroit, écoutez-le-moi dire un peu. « Et qu’il ne trouvera plus de matière pour… — Plus de matière! Hé, mon pauvre Marquis, nous lui en fournirons toujours assez, et nous ne prenons guère le chemin de nous rendre sages pour tout ce qu’il fait et tout ce qu’il dit. Crois-tu qu’il ait épuisé dans ses comédies tout le ridicule des hommes? Et sans sortir de la cour, n’a-t-il pas encore vingt caractères de gens où il n’a point touché? N’a-t-il pas, par exemple, ceux qui se font les plus grandes amitiés du monde, et qui le dos tourné font galanterie de se déchirer l’un l’autre? N’a-t-il pas ces adulateurs à outrance, ces flatteurs insipides qui n’assaisonnent d’aucun sel les louanges qu’ils donnent, et dont toutes les flatteries ont une douceur fade qui fait mal au cœur à ceux qui les écoutent? N’a-t-il pas ces lâches courtisans de la faveur, ces perfides adorateurs de la fortune, qui vous encensent dans la prospérité, et vous accablent dans la disgrâce? N’a-t-il pas ceux qui sont toujours mécontents de la cour, ces suivants inutiles, ces incommodes assidus, ces gens, dis-je, qui pour services ne peuvent compter que des importunités, et qui veulent que l’on les récompense d’avoir obsédé le prince dix ans durant? N’a-t-il pas ceux qui caressent également tout le monde, qui promènent leurs civilités à droite et à gauche, et courent à tous ceux qu’ils voient avec les mêmes embrassades, et les mêmes protestations d’amitié? “Monsieur votre très humble serviteur. — Monsieur je suis tout à votre service. — Tenez-moi des vôtres, mon cher. — Faites état de moi, Monsieur, comme du plus chaud de vos amis. — Monsieur, je suis ravi de vous embrasser. — Ah! Monsieur, je ne vous voyais pas. Faites-moi la grâce de m’employer, soyez persuadé que je suis entièrement à vous. Vous êtes l’homme du monde que je révère le plus; il n’y a personne que j’honore à l’égal de vous. Je vous conjure de le croire; je vous supplie de n’en point douter. — Serviteur. — Très humble valet”. Va, va, Marquis, Molière aura toujours plus de sujets qu’il n’en voudra, et tout ce qu’il a touché jusqu’ici n’est rien que bagatelle, au prix de ce qui reste. » Voilà à peu près comme cela doit être joué. Molière (Sc. iv) [You must be more emphatic with this passage. Just listen to me for a moment. “And that he will find no more subjects for . . . No more subjects? Ah, dear Marquis, we shall always go on providing him with plenty, and we are scarcely taking the course to grow wise, for all that he can do or say. Do you imagine that he has exhausted in his comedies all the follies of men; and without leaving the Court, are there not a score of characters which he has not yet touched upon? For instance, has he, not those who profess the greatest friendship possible, and who, when they turn their backs, think it a piece of gallantry to tear each other to pieces? Has he not those unmitigated sycophants, those vapid flatterers, who never give a pinch of salt with their praises, and whose flatteries have a sickly sweetness which nauseate those who hear them? Has he not the craven courtiers of favourites, the treacherous worshippers of fortune, who praise you in prosperity, and run you down in adversity? Has he not those who are always discontented with the Court, those useless hangers on, those troublesome, officious creatures, those people who can count up no services except importunities, and who expect to be rewarded for having laid a ten years’ siege to the King? Has he not doubt Molière had much ado to keep himself out of an endless series of those who fawn on all the world alike, who hand their civilities from left to right, who run after all whom they see, with the same salutations, and the same professions of friendship? ‘Sir, your most obedient. Sir, I am entirely at your service. Consider me wholly yours, dear sir. Reckon me, sir, as the warmest of your friends. Sir, I am enchanted to embrace you. Ah! sir, I did not see you. Oblige me by making use of me; be assured I am wholly yours. You are the one man in the world whom I most esteem. There is no one whom I honour like you. I entreat you to believe it. I beg of you not to doubt it. Your servant. Your humble slave.’ Oh, Marquis, Marquis, Moliere will always have more subjects than he needs; and all that he has aimed at as yet is but a trifle to the treasure which is within his reach.”] Molière (Sc. 3, pp. 204-205)
FRANCE – JANUARY 01: Moliere (Jean- Baptiste Poquelin). Oil on Canvas. By Pierre Mignard (1612-1695). (Photo by Imagno/Getty Images) [Jean- Baptiste Moliere. oel/Lw. Von Pierre Mignard (1612-1695).]
L’Impromptu de Versailles, 3
DRAMATIS PERSONSÆ MOLIERE, a ridiculous Marquis, BRECOURT, a man of Quality. LA GRANGE, a ridiculous Marquis. Du CROISY, a poet. LA THORILLIERE, a fidgety Marquis. BEJART, a busybody. FOUR BUSYBODIES. Mademoiselle DUPARC, 6 a ceremonious Marchioness. Mademoiselle BEJART, a prude. Mademoiselle DEBRIE, a sage coquette. Mademoiselle MOLIERE, a satirical wit. Mademoiselle Du CROISY, a whining plague. Mademoiselle HERVE, a conceited chambermaid. Scene. VERSAILLES, IN THE KING’ S ANTECHAMBER
L’Impromptu de Versailles features Molière playing Molière and his troupe playing their role. They are characters in a play within a play, le théâtre dans le théâtre. Louis XIV has commissioned this short play because he wants Molière to defend himself against his accusers.
In Scene One, after his actors oppose performing a play, they have yet to rehearse and tell Molière that he is fortunate. He knows the play. But Molière bemoans his role, not to mention the power of a king. The play was performed on 14 October 1663, at Versailles. Molière and his actors knew the play Molière had written despite a script, L’Impromptu, according to which Molière knew the play, but his actors did not. L’Impromptu was performed at the Palais-Royal on 4 November 1663.
We know that Molière wanted to please an audience, but he also had to please, or not earn a living, or money to support his actors. So, they often rehearsed very quickly a play Molière had written in a matter of days. Louis XIV was aware of Molière’s self-ambition and named Lully “director of the Académie Royale de Musique” (1873-1887). (See Lully, Wikipedia.) Molière fell out with Jean-Baptiste Lully in 1672. His composer would be Marc-Antoine Charpentier. History would prove Molière the more remarkable genius. Moreover, Molière, not Lully, created the comédie-ballet. Moreover, the French court sought constant divertissements. It danced, and it sang. Therefore, Molière worried and said so. As a playwright, chef de troupe and actor, he worked to death. Molière died at the age of 51.
Et n’ai-je à craindre que le manquement de mémoire? Ne comptez-vous pour rien l’inquiétude d’un succès qui ne regarde que moi seul? Et pensez-vous que ce soit une petite affaire, que d’exposer quelque chose de comique devant une assemblée comme celle-ci? que d’entreprendre de faire rire des personnes qui nous impriment le respect, et ne rient que quand ils veulent? Est-il auteur qui ne doive trembler, lorsqu’il en vient à cette épreuve? Et n’est-ce pas à moi de dire que je voudrais en être quitte pour toutes les choses du monde? Molière (Sc I. i) [And have I nothing to fear but want of memory? Do you reckon the anxiety as to our success, which is entirely my own concern, nothing? And do you think it a trifle to provide something comic for such an assembly as this; to undertake to excite laughter in those who command our respect, and who only laugh when they choose? Must not any author tremble when he comes to such a test? Would it not be natural for me to say that I would give everything in the world to be quit of it.] Molière (Sc. I. 1, p. 192)
Mon Dieu, Mademoiselle, les rois n’aiment rien tant qu’une prompte obéissance, et ne se plaisent point du tout à trouver des obstacles. Les choses ne sont bonnes que dans le temps qu’ils les souhaitent ; et leur en vouloir reculer le divertissement est en ôter pour eux toute la grâce. Ils veulent des plaisirs qui ne se fassent point attendre, et les moins préparés leur sont toujours les plus agréables, nous ne devons jamais nous regarder dans ce qu’ils désirent de nous, nous ne sommes que pour leur plaire ; et lorsqu’ils nous ordonnent quelque chose, c’est à nous à profiter vite de l’envie où ils sont. Il vaut mieux s’acquitter mal de ce qu’ils nous demandent, que de ne s’en acquitter pas assez tôt ; et si l’on a la honte de n’avoir pas bien réussi, on a toujours la gloire d’avoir obéi vite à leurs commandements. Mais songeons à répéter s’il vous plaît. Molière (Sc. i) [Oh! Mademoiselle, Kings like nothing better than a ready obedience, and are not at all pleased to meet with obstacles. Things are not acceptable, save at the moment when they desire them; to try to delay their amusement is to take away all the charm. They want pleasures that do not keep them waiting; and those that are least prepared are always the most agreeable to them. We ought never to think of ourselves in what they desire of us; our only business is to please them; and, when they command us, it is our part to respond quickly to their wish. We had better do amiss what they require of us, than not do it soon enough; if we have the shame of not succeeding, we always have the credit of having speedily obeyed their commands. But now, pray, let us set about our rehearsal.] Molière (Sc. 1, p. 193)
Scene Three
Scene Three provokes a strange feeling, which is consistent with works of fiction. They may seem real. Roland Barthes has given a name to this phenomenon: l’effet de réel, which, in L’Impromptu de Versailles reaches dizzying heights. Molière protrayed his century and did so because he wrote “d’après nature.” He observed carefully, which led to the Querelle de l’École des femmes. On 4 June 1664, his realism unleashed fury. His Tartuffe was condemned and, to a certain extent members of la Compagnie du Saint-Sacrement could be fooled. They could see a real dévot, in a faux dévot. Molière rewrote his play until it could be performed with producing a scandal.
L’effet de réel also generates feelings. Form and feelings are not easily dissociated. Susanne K. Langer‘s Feeling and Form: A Theory of Art (1953) is very convincing. When the play begins, we are in the “green” room. For instance, Molière says that he does not want to be Molière and denies having played the marquis ridicule in La Critique de l’École des femmes, but a little further down the page, he admits having played the marquis ridicule. However, La Grange wants to bet, cent (a hundred) pistoles that Molière was the marquis ridicule and Brécourt has just arrived and says that both are “fools.” Suddenly, we remember Perrin Dandin.
Scene Four
Brécourt as umpire says that both Molière and La Grange are “fools,” which takes us back to La Critique’s Uranie who suggests that characters presented on the stage are “miroirs publics” (public mirrors) and “une thèse générale,” generalities. Molière does not attack anyone in particular, he depicts a group.
Comme l’affaire de la comédie est de représenter en général tous les défauts des hommes, et principalement des hommes de notre siècle; il est impossible à Molière de faire aucun caractère qui ne rencontre quelqu’un dans le monde; et s’il faut qu’on l’accuse d’avoir songé toutes les personnes ou l’on peut trouver les défauts qu’il peint, il faut sans doute qu’il ne fasse plus de comedies. Brécourt (Sc. iv) [As the business of comedy is to represent in a general way all the faults of men, and especially of the men of our day, it is impossible for Moliere to create any character not to be met with in the world; and if he must be accused of thinking of everyone in whom are to be found the faults which he delineates he must, of course, give up writing comedies.] Brécourt (Sc. iii, p. 203)
Moreover, Molière is not running out of material. The following quotation names all kinds of courtiers he could depict as hypocrites. They greet one another politely, only to indulge in backbiting. This tirade, a soliloquy, is a prelude to the Misanthrope, which would not be performed until 4th June 1666. Molière still has everything to say. A tirade follows, but it is too long to quote in its entirety. The full quotation has become a post entitled L’Impromptu, Sc. iv.
Attendez, il faut marquer davantage tout cet endroit, écoutez-le-moi dire un peu. «Et qu’il ne trouvera plus de matière pour… — Plus de matière! Hé, mon pauvre Marquis, nous lui en fournirons toujours assez, et nous ne prenons guère le chemin de nous rendre sages pour tout ce qu’il fait et tout ce qu’il dit. Crois-tu qu’il ait épuisé dans ses comédies tout le ridicule des hommes? Et sans sortir de la cour, n’a-t-il pas encore vingt caractères de gens où il n’a point touché? N’a-t-il pas, par exemple, ceux qui se font les plus grandes amitiés du monde, et qui le dos tourné font galanterie de se déchirer l’un l’autre? Voilà à peu près comme cela doit être joué. Molière (Sc. iv) [You must be more emphatic with this passage. Just listen to me for a moment. “And that he will find no more subjects for . . . No more subjects? Ah, dear Marquis, we shall always go on providing him with plenty, and we are scarcely taking the course to grow wise, for all that he can do or say. Do you imagine that he has exhausted in his comedies all the follies of men; and without leaving the Court, are there not a score of characters which he has not yet touched upon? For instance, has he not those who profess the greatest friendship possible, and who, when they turn their backs, think it a piece of gallantry to tear each other to pieces?] Molière (Sc. 3, pp. 204-205)
In Scene Five, all members of Molière’s troupe are delighted because authors have got together to write a play against Molière, entitled Le Portrait du peintre. Vengeance is expected on Molière’s part. We suspect, first, that others attack him because they see themselves in the ridiculous characters his plays depict. What we see and hear is unlikely to correspond to what is said. Second, Molière was the better playwright.
Brécourt feels that a new play, a superior play, is the appropriate response.
Molière describes the society of his century “d’après nature.” In other words, he depicts his society realistically, which is the source of the querelle de l’École des femmes and will also be the source of Tartuffe‘s condemnation. Molière’s knowledge of human nature brings to mind humanists such as Montaigne, l’humayne condition, and Rabelais‘ various characters.
The End of a Project
I have now written posts on every play Molière wrote. Some posts are less bilingual than others which can be remedied. I do not think, however, that I can write a full book on Molière. I no longer live near a research library and my memory is failing me. I forget the spelling of words. But my posts will be my contribution to Molière scholarship, other than articles I have written. I am glad Internet Archives published Henri van Laun’s translation of every play Molière wrote.
I have chosen music composed by Louis XIII. Louis XIII did not live with his wife, yet he fathered two children. The kings of France loved entertainment.
Sources and Resources L’Impromptu de Versailles is a toutmolière.net publication. L’Impromptu de Versailles is an Internet Archive publication. La Critique de l’École des femmes is a toutmolière.net publication. The School for Wives criticized is an Internet Archive publication. Our translator is Henri van Laun. Wikipedia: various entries. The Encyclopædia Britannica: various entries.
Oui, mais qui rit d’autrui, Doit craindre, qu’en revanche, on rie aussi de lui. Arnolphe à Chrysalde (I, i) [Yes; but he who laughs at another must beware, lest he inturn be laughed at himself.] Arnolphe to Chrysalde (I. 1, p. 96)
Irony is the literary device underlying L’École des femmes. In Act One, scene one, Arnolphe (see toutmolière.net) describes Agnès to Chrysalde. Agnès is innocent to the point of making him laugh:
La vérité passe encor mon récit./ Dans ses simplicités à tous coups je l’admire,/160 Et parfois elle en dit, dont je pâme de rire./ L’autre jour (pourrait-on se le persuader)/ Elle était fort en peine, et me vint demander,/ Avec une innocence à nulle autre pareille,/ Si les enfants qu’on fait, se faisaient par l’oreille. Arnolphe à Chrysalde (I. i) [What I have told you falls even short of the truth: I admire her simplicity on all occasions; sometimes she says things at which I split my sides with laughing. The other day would you believe it? she was uneasy, and came to ask me, with unexampled innocence, if children came through the ears.] Arnolphe to Chrysalde (I. 1, p. 99)
There can be no doubt that laughing at others will cause others to laugh at Arnolphe when and if he is cuckolded. But, worse, Arnolphe will be cuckolded before he marries.
Expectations
Arnolphe
Climène the prude
le Marquis
Lysidas, the poet
As you know, communication cannot occur when an interlocuteur hears and sees what he expects to hear and see, which is irony. The Marquis, who has not even seen L’École des femmes, cannot say a word about it. Yet he maintains that the play is détestable. When Dorante asks him to say why the play is “détestable,” he cannot substantiate his “détestable.” All he can say is that the play is détestable because it is détestable, which is not an answer. He cannot dislike a play he hasn’t see, but he can dislike having been squeezed and frippé by the crowd at the entrance to the theatre. He has also heard laughter, which in his eyes is proof positive that the play is a flop, when in fact laughter proves that the play is enormously successful.
Molière seems way ahead of his time. This is the Theatre of the Absurd(le Théâtre de l’Absurde). Yet, it isn’t. Molière depicts humans “d’après nature,” as they are. By doing so, he illustrates flaws in information and communication that now constitute a theory (“noise” in Information Theory).
In other words, the Marquis has been told that the play is a flop, and expects to see a flop. In fact, laughter has caused him not to pay any attention to the play. He is, therefore, undone.
As for the poet Lysidas, he liked the play but says that the connoisseurs have not. So, he claims that L’École des femmes does not respect the rules of classical theatre, which it does. His response and the Marquis’s response have been conditioned by the attacks Molière faces and which he addresses by writing La Critique de l’École des femmes. Truth be told, the prude, the Marquis, and the poet reject The School for Wives because their judgement is flawed by “noise.” They see and hear what they have been told to see and hear. Spectators and readers will laugh honestly, but not a précieuse, a Marquis, or a poet.
Irony
In L’École des femmes, however, the main irony resides in Arnolphe’s failure to defeat Horace. Arnolphe has done the utmost to make sure Agnès knows no more than where to put the tarte à la crème, the cream tart. Moreover, young Horace, who does not know that Arnolphe is Monsieur de la Souche, tells Arnolphe, whom he trusts, all the stratagems he will use to take Agnès away from Monsieur de la Souche’s house, a doubling. Yet, although he is armed to the teeth, Arnolphe loses Agnès.
But an unforeseen event, the fortuitous return of a father, may prevent Horace and Agnès from marrying, despite their own stratagems. Oronte, Horace’s father, wants Horace to marry Enrique’s long-lost daughter. So, ironically, Oronte’s son Horace goes to Arnolphe to tell his woes and then asks our jaloux to protect him by keeping Agnès.
Jugez, en prenant part à mon inquiétude,/ S’il pouvait m’arriver un contre-temps plus rude;/ Cet Enrique, dont hier je m’informais à vous,/1635 Cause tout le malheur dont je ressens les coups;/ Il vient avec mon père achever ma ruine,/ Et c’est sa fille unique à qui l’on me destine. Horace à Arnolphe (V, vi) [Feel for my anxiety and judge if a more cruel disappointment could happen to me. That Enrique, whom I asked you about yesterday, is the source of all my trouble. He has come with my father to complete my ruin; it is for his only daughter that I am destined.] Horace to Arnolphe (V. 6. p. 139)
An Anagnorisis
Fate may harm an authoritarian pater familias, but it is kind to young lovers and will not let the trompeur deceive anyone. It so happens, ironically, that Enrique’s daughter is Agnès and that he has returned much enriched. So, we have an anagnorisis. Horace had asked Arnolphe to hide Agnès so he would not lose her, which is the height of irony, Arnolphe being his rival. However, Agnès is Enrique’s daughter and the bride Oronte has chosen for his son. Moreover, Enrique is opposed to forced marriages and if there is a marriage, he will repay Arnolphe the full cost of bringing up Agnès. Agnès will owe nothing. Comedy may at times border on fairy tales. The young couple will marry. But, as mentioned above:
Oui, mais qui rit d’autrui, Doit craindre, qu’en revanche, on rie aussi de lui. Arnolphe à Chrysalde (I, i) [Yes; but he who laughs at another must beware, lest he inturn be laughed at himself.] Arnolphe to Chrysalde (I. 1, p. 96)
The play seems an exemplum (an example that illustrates a moral), as in a sermon or a fable. Comedy favours the marriage of a young couple. In Act Three, scene two of L’École des femmes, Arnolphe has Agnès read: Les Maximes du Mariage ou Les Devoirs de la femme mariée. Act Three, scene two pp. 37-40. Pleasure rules.
Le moyen de chasser ce qui fait du plaisir ? Agnès à Arnolphe (V, iv) [How can we drive away what gives us pleasure?] Agnès to Arnolphe (V. 4. p, 137)
If obscénité there is in L’École des femmes and La Critique, it resides in the mind of prudes and it is the role some women choose to make up for their evanescent youth and beauty. They play a new role, but they are still on stage. The Marquis proves that the play is immensely successful. People were laughing. As noted above, Molière is way ahead of himself. This isthéâtre de l’absurde (the Theatre of the Absurd). Yet, it isn’t. Molière depicts humans “d’après nature,” as they are. But by doing so, he illustrates flaws in information and communication that now constitute a theory (“noise” in Information Theory).
I will leave you to read whatever information I have had to leave out.
I am nearly done, so please be patient. La Critique de L’École des femmes is an extraordinary play but life has slowed me down. Moreover, confinement takes its toll. I have been indoors since early March.
The American Presidential Election has also been on my mind. It was a close race, but I am proud of the American people. We need to put an end to the pandemic. Wearing a mask is essential. Gatherings are out of the question, and one must wash one’s hands.
So I return to my post. Whoever is reading my post must not delete paragraphs to make it shorter. I can delete what is not essential, but we are reading the play. A mere description will not yield good results. The quality of La Critique de L’École des femmes stems mainly from its dialogues.
In Le Tartuffe, Molière depicted his faux dévot “d’après nature.” However, the play was banned because Tartuffe, who feigned devotion, acted very much like a devout person, which offended the dévots of Paris: la Compagnie du Saint-Sacrement.
As for L’École desfemmes, it was criticized because of details mainly. For instance, one person found the manner Arnolphe questions Agnès rather crude. Arnolphe wants to know if Horace took anything from her other than her hands and arms, which he caressed. She hesitates to tell that he took the ribbon Arnolphe had given her. She says “le” and this “le” was obscene according to Climène, a précieuse.
“Ah ! ruban, tant qu’il vous plaira ; mais ce, le, où elle s’arrête, n’est pas mis pour des prunes. Il vient sur ce, le, d’étranges pensées. Ce, le, scandalise furieusement ; et quoi que vous puissiez dire, vous ne sauriez défendre l’insolence de ce, le.” Climène (I, 3) La Critique de l’École des femmes [Oh yes, the ribbon! But that “the,” when she checks herself, is not put there for nothing. Odd ideas are suggested by this “the.” That the is tremendously scandalous.]
The “le” (the) was not only offensive, but it was not there for nothing: “pour des prunes[.]” “Il y a une obscénité qui n’est pas supportable.” Climène (I, 3) La Critique de l’École des femmes [Its obscenity is unbearable.] Climène (I. 3)
“Les récits eux-mêmes y sont des actions suivant la constitution du sujet.” Dorante (I, 6) La Critique de l’École des femmes [There is a good deal of action in it, passing on the stage; the narratives are themselves actions, according to the constitution of the piece, …] Dorante (I, 7) The School for Wives Criticized
These were indeed part of the action because Arnolphe could not tell anyone, not even Chrysalde, the play’s raisonneur, about the “star […] bent on driving [him] to despair” (The School for Wives, p. 21). Arnolphe was a star-crossed barbon.
The Dramatic Action
In L’École des femmes, the dramatic action is triggered by a doubling of the identity of the blocking character. Horace, our young lover, does not know that Arnolphe, his father’s friend, is Monsieur de la Souche and that in confiding to Arnolphe, he is in fact confiding to his rival. When Arnolphe learns that young Horace has fallen in love with Agnès who is kept sequestered by a very jealous Monsieur de la Souche, he must conceal his grief and bewilderment. He speaks to himself and, if he didn’t, there would be gaps in the dramatic action. There has to be a dialogue, which there is.
“Oh ! que j’ai souffert durant cet entretien ! Jamais trouble d’esprit ne fut égal au mien. Avec quelle imprudence et quelle hâte extrême Il m’est venu conter cette affaire à moi-même !” Arnolphe (I, 4, v. 357-360) L’École des femmes [Oh, what I have endured during this conversation! Never was trouble of mind equal to mine! With what rashness and extreme haste did he come to tell me of this affair!] The School for Wives, p. 9.
Destiny
Destiny plays a key role in L’École des femmes and Arnolphe blames destiny throughout the play:
In scene IV, 7 Arnolphe speaks about the above-mentioned “star which is bent on driving [him] to despair,” and remains defiant.
“Quoi ? l’astre qui s’obstine à me désespérer, Ne me donnera pas le temps de respirer, Coup sur coup je verrai par leur intelligence, De mes soins vigilants confondre la prudence, D’une jeune innocente, et d’un jeune éventé ?” Arnolphe (IV, 7, v. 1182-1186) p. 56 [What, will the star which is bent on driving me to despair allow me no time to breathe? Am I to see, through their mutual understanding, my watchful care and my wisdom defeated one after another? Must I, in my mature age, become the dupe of a simple girl and a scatter−brained young fellow?] The School for Wives, p. 21.
Destiny is so cruel to Arnolphe that it brings in a “real” father. When Enrique, Agnès’ biological father, arrives, Agnès ceases to be Arnolphe’s ward, which she has been for 13 years. Arnolphe is so perturbed that, having expressed himself quite fluently in several soliloquies and asides, he suddenly loses his ability to speak. In an aparté, Chrysalde tells Arnolphe, who is returning to his house, that, given his fear of cuckolding, it is best for him not to marry. Arnolphe is indeed spared cuckolding, but he has been crushed by destiny.
Life as a game of dice: “un jeu de dés”
Destiny is so powerful that in Act IV, Scene 8, Chrysalde, the raisonneur himself, suggests that all Arnolphe can do, if betrayed by “cursed fate,” is to select an appropriate response to this “accident.” Destiny is an indomitable force that can strike anyone at any time. In fact, Chrysalde tells Arnolphe that cocuage is what one makes of it: “Le cocuage n’est que ce que l’on le fait.” (Chrysalde, IV, 8, v. 1285). Destiny (le sort) gives men a wife and life is a jeu de dés, a game of dice. One corrects such accidents as cocuage though “good management,” une bonne conduite:
“Quoi qu’on en puisse dire, enfin, le cocuage Sous des traits moins affreux aisément s’envisage; Et, comme je vous le dis, toute l’habileté Ne va qu’à le savoir tourner du bon côté.” Chrysalde (IV, 8, v. 1270-1273) L’École des femmes [In short, say what you will, cuckolding may easily be made to seem less terrible; and, as I told you before, all your dexterity lies in being able to turn the best side outwards.] The School for wives, p. 22.
“Mais comme c’est le sort qui nous donne une femme, Je dis que l’on doit faire ainsi qu’au jeu de dés, Il faut jouer d’adresse et d’une âme réduite, Corriger le hasard par la bonne conduite.” Chrysalde (IV, 8, v. 1282-1285) L’École des femmes [But as fortune gives us a wife, I say that we should act as we do when we gamble with dice, when, if you do not get what you want, you must be shrewd and good−tempered, to amend your luck by good management.] The School for wives, p. 22.
Given the power he associates with destiny, Arnolphe’s obsessive fear of cuckolding is in his nature. This immutability of nature is a premise in Molière. Arnolphe is as he is and Agnès is as she is. For instance, she can tell Horace that she is kept by a very jealous man. Agnès may be an ignorant girl, but she knows about jealousy. She also knows about the game of dice.
Agnès and Horace
In L’École des femmes, the laws of comedy are pushed to an extreme. After Agnès escapes Monsieur de la Souche, which could be the resolution of the play, Horace asks Arnolphe to house and guard Agnès so her reputation is protected.
Moreover, it is barely credible that Agnès’ biological father should arrive the moment his daughter is being led away by Arnolphe. It is also barely credible that Agnès should have fallen in love with the young man her father wanted her to marry. Molière doubles the father figure: Monsieur de la Souche and Enrique, who has decided his daughter would marry Horace. Were it not for Chrysalde’s intervention, and the power of destiny, Horace’s marriage may have been a mariage
“(…) Si son cœur a quelque répugnance. Je tiens qu’on ne doit pas lui faire résistance.” Chrysalde (V, 7, v. 1684-1686) L’École des femmes [If it is repugnant to him, I think we ought not to force him. I think my brother will be of my mind.] The School for Wives, p. 28.
Such words as “hasard” (chance) and “le Ciel,” (heaven) reveal a view of the world according to which destiny controls mankind. L’École des femmes may therefore reflect Jansenism, but the word Jansenism is not used.
“Allons dans la maison débrouiller ces mystères, Payer à notre ami ses soins officieux, Et rendre grâce au Ciel qui fait tout pour le mieux.” Chrysalde (V, 9, v. 1775 -1765) L’École des femmes [Let us go inside, and clear up these mysteries. Let us shew our friend some return for his great pains, and thank Heaven, which orders all for the best.] The School for Wives, p. 29.
In 1662, the Church of France opposed Jesuits, who at the time used casuistry,[2] and Jansenists, who believed in predestination. Port-Royal (Jansenism) is an indelible page of French history and it inspired Blaise Pascal‘s masterful Lettres provinciales, a brillant attack of casuistry. Pascal’s last Lettre provinciale was written in 1657.
In Tartuffe, there is a reference to casuistry. Tartuffe knows how to “pacify scruples:”
“Je sais l’art de lever [to lift] des scrupules.” Tartuffe (IV, 4, v. 1486) [I know the art of pacifying scruples.] Tartuffe
However, Molière does not associate L’École des femmes with an ideology. We know that Molière borrowed his subject matter from Paul Scarron‘s translation of a Spanish novella by Doña Maria de Zayas y Sotomayor, which Scarron entitled La Précaution inutile. We also know that L’École des femmes has Italian antecedents. It could be, therefore, that ancestors to L’École des femmes gave destiny an important role. Yet, it seems unlikely that they gave destiny as decisive a role as Molière did.
Jansenists maintained that only those whom God had chosen would be saved. This notion was referred to as the theory of predestination, a theory associated with Saint Augustine, or Augustine of Hippo (13 November 354 CE – 28 August 430 CE).
Molière did not have to refer to an ideology when writing L’École des femmes. He did not need to. Comedy promotes the success of the young lovers. Yet seldom has destiny countered a barbon‘s wishes as imperatively. Dismissing predestination is somewhat difficult because of the central role given soliloquies. Arnolphe must hide from Horace that he is Monsieur de la Souche, until Chrysalde says:
“(…) Ce nom l’aigrit ; C’est Monsieur de la Souche, on vous l’a déjà dit.” Chrysalde (V, 7, v. 1712-1703) [That name annoys him. He is Monsieur de la Souche, as you were told before.] The School for Wives, p. 28.
As noted above, in L’École des femmes, life is compared to a jeu de dés [dice]. Gambling is also invoked by Agnès herself.
“Mon Dieu, ne gagez pas, vous perdriez vraiment.” Agnès (II, 5, v. 474) [3] [Oh, Heaven, do not bet; you would assuredly lose.] The School for wives, p.10.
However, I will not conclude that L’École des femmes reflects Jansenism, except marginally. The laws of comedy promote the marriage of the young lovers and farces do not tolerate boasting. Moreover, jealousy is a topos, a lieu commun.
But I will note that Molière’s L’École des femmes seems a prelude to Marivaux‘ exquisite comedies. It is a “jeu de l’amour et du hasard,” a “Game of love and chance,” without Watteau‘s ethereal Fêtes galantes.
[1] Gabriel Conesa, Le Dialogue moliéresque (Paris: SEDES-CDU, 1992), p. 30.[2] Roxanne Lalande, “L’École des femmes: matrimony and the laws of chance,” in David Bradby and Andrew Calder (editors), The Cambridge Companion to Molière (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 165-176. [3] “casuistry”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia _________________________ Bourbeau-Walker, Micheline. « L’échec d’Arnolphe : loi du genre ou faille intérieure », in Papers on French Seventeenth Century Literature, (Seattle-Tübingen, 1984, Vol. XI, No 20), pp. 79-92.
My computer crashed, so I had to put it together again from scratch. It was a matter of passwords. Microsoft’s employees would not help me retrieve my password.
We are returning to Molière, but not immediately. First, we will read one more post on Confederation. It is almost ready to publish. We will read two short plays by Molière, his La Critique de l’École des femmes (1st June 1663), and L’Impromptu de Versailles (the Fall of 1663). These are often considered Molière’s “theoretical” plays, but they are performed and constitute essential reading. After reading these two plays, we will have read all plays written by Molière, but some are not presented with an English translation.
Our discussion of these two one-act plays will be followed by a reading of Madame de La Fayette‘s Princesse de Clèves (1678). You may remember that Molière depicts the harms of jealousy. Our best example is Dom Garcie de Navarre, but Amphitryon is the model most remember. In La Princesse de Clèves, jealousy precludes reciprocated love. The French wars of religion are its backdrop. Henri II is the King of France. He is married to Catherine de’ Medici, but loves his mistress, Diane de Poitiers. One of Catherine and Henri II’s sons was Henri III. He died in 1589, which is when Henri III de Navarre became Henri IV of France (La Henriade). As King of Navarre, he had been a Huguenot. He converted to Catholicism and proclaimed the Edict of Nantes (1598).
For the last few months, I have been updating my page listing Fables by La Fontaine. France has a new “site officiel” dedicated to La Fontaine, which means that links no longer take a reader to the fable under discussion.
LÉLIE, (son of) fils de Pandolphe.
CÉLIE, (slave to) esclave de Trufaldin.
MASCARILLE, (lackey to) valet de Lélie.
HIPPOLYTE, (daughter of) fille d’Anselme.
ANSELME, (old man) vieillard.
TRUFALDIN, vieillard.
PANDOLPHE, vieillard.
LÉANDRE, (son) fils de famille.
ANDRÈS, (believed to be) cru égyptien.
ERGASTE, valet.
UN COURRIER.
DEUX TROUPES DE MASQUES.
We will now read the remainder of Molière’s L’Étourdi, The Blunderer.
a doubling
Lélie always crosses Mascarille’s plan, but Molière has built a sub-plot which could be called a doubling. However, the rules of classical theater demand that elements of the play be introduced in Act One. No one knows Célie’s identity, which points to a discovery, an anagnorisis. Mascarille, however, knows details of Trufaldin’s life. There will be a discovery that will allow Lélie and Célie to marry. The play is entitled L’Étourdi ou les contretemps. Contretemps are unexpected events. Lélie blunders, but he is often misled by appearances and by his beliefs. We have seen that he will not allow Léandre to look upon Célie has a loose woman.
The beginning of Célie’s story
Almost as soon as the curtain lifts, we learn that Trufaldin’s slave, Célie, has parents. She is very beautiful, but Lélie, who is in love with her and knows her heart, suspects that she is of higher birth. Molière makes room for a redeeming recognition.
Pour moi, dans ses discours, comme dans son visage,/ Je vois pour sa naissance un noble témoignage,/ Et je crois que le Ciel dedans un rang si bas,/30 Cache son origine, et ne l’en tire pas. Lélie à Mascarille (I. ii)
[For my part, in her conversation as well as in her countenance, I see evidence of her noble birth. I believe that Heaven has concealed a lofty origin beneath such a lowly station.] Lélie to Mascarille (I. 2, p. 10).
When Lélie and Mascarille go to Trufaldin’s house to know their fortune and be certain Célie’s feelings are compatible with Lélie’s, Célie reassures Lélie, saying, however, that her heart has not hurt anyone:
Mon cœur, qu’avec raison votre discours étonne,/ N’entend pas que mes yeux fassent mal à personne;/ Et si dans quelque chose, ils vous ont outragé,/ Je puis vous assurer que c’est sans mon congé. Célie à Lélie (I. iii)
[My heart, which has good reason to be astonished
at your speech, does not wish my eyes to injure any one;
if they have offended you in anything, I can assure you I did not intend it.] Célie to Lélie (I. iii, p. 12)
When Trufaldin realizes that Célie is outdoors, he tells her that she is not allowed to leave the house. She comments that a long time ago, she knew this fine man, suggesting a life gone bye: autrefois (in the past).
Autrefois j’ai connu cet honnête garçon ; 130Et vous n’avez pas lieu d’en prendre aucun soupçon. Célie à Trufaldin (I. iv)
[I was once acquainted with this respectable young man; You have no reason to be suspicious of him.] Célie to Trufaldin (I. iv, p. 12)
Moreover, there is a ring.
Cette bague connue, Vous dira le sujet qui cause ma venue. Mascarille à Trufaldin (II. ix)
[This ring, which you know, will inform you what business brings me hither.] Mascarille to Trufaldin (II. 2, p. 12)
This is the ring he is to take to Nérine as a token of Anselme’s love.
Et l’on m’a mis en main une bague à la mode,/ Q’après vous payerez si cela l’accommode. Mascarille à Anselme (I. iii, v. 254)
[No, there is no need of your money ; without troubling yourself, I will make her a present ; a fashionable ring has been left in my hands, which you may pay for afterwards, if it fits her.] Mascarille to Anselme (I. 6, p. 16)
Lélie has a courier bring a letter in which a Spanish nobleman states that he is travelling to take his daughter back to Spain. Although Mascarille has the ring, Trufaldin believes the courier. There is a past, an autrefois.
The Visit to Trufaldin’s
In Act Four, Scene One, Mascarille tells Lélie, as much as he knows about Zanobio Ruberti. He and Lélie will have dinner with Trufaldin and Célie. As the image at the top of this post reveals, Lélie is disguised as an Armenian. He has to learn a role, but Lélie doesn’t think he needs tutoring.
Ces répétitions ne sont que superflues;/ Dès l’abord mon esprit a compris tout le fait. Lélie à Mascarille (IV. i)
[These repetitions are superfluous. From the very beginning I understood it all.] Lélie to Mascarille (IV. 1, p. 50)
They aren’t. Lélie cannot remember that he parted with Trufaldin’s son in Tunis. He says Turin. Consequently, Trufaldin knows Lélie has not met his son. This “comedy” incurs Trufaldin’s wrath because it is cruel. Moreover, Lélie cannot keep his eyes from admiring Célie and in the process, he pays no attention to Trufaldin’s niece Jeannette. This is yet another blunder. Therefore, Trufaldin has a stick made from an old oak tree. Lélie will be beaten and Mascarille joins in to keep his cover. Others must believe he is a friend.
We skip Scene Three because we have read Anselme on Love (4).
Blunders or Fate
In Scene Four, Lélie states that love misguides him and that Mascarille doesn’t know its force:
Qu’il est aisé de condamner des choses/ Dont tu ne ressens point les agréables causes!/ Je veux bien néanmoins, pour te plaire une fois,/ Faire force à l’amour qui m’impose ses lois./ Désormais… Lélie à Mascarille (IV. iv)
[Lack-a day! how easy it is for you to condemn things of which you do not feel the enchanting cause. In order to humour you for once I have, nevertheless, a good mind to put a restraint upon that love which sways me.
Henceforth . . .] Lélie to Mascarille (IV. 5)
Lélie also feels that his fate is cruel.
Faut-il que le malheur qui me suit à la trace/ Me fasse voir toujours disgrâce sur disgrâce. Lélie, seul (IV. vi, v. 1635)
[Will ill-luck always follow me, and heap upon me one misfortune after another?] Lélie, alone (IV. 8, p. 58)
A Second Rival: Andrès
In Scene Seven, Ergaste tells Mascarille that a young man, an Egyptian whose skin is white and seems prosperous, and an old woman have arrived.
À l’heure que je parle, un jeune Égyptien,/ Qui n’est pas noir pourtant, et sent assez son bien,/ Arrive, accompagné d’une vieille fort hâve,/ Et vient chez Trufaldin racheter cette esclave/ Que vous vouliez; pour elle il paraît fort zélé. Ergaste à Mascarille (IV. vii)
[At the very moment I am talking to you, a young gipsy, who nevertheless is no black, and looks like a gentleman, has arrived with a very wan-looking old woman, and is to call upon Trufaldin to purchase the slave you wished to redeem. He seems to be very anxious to get possession of her.] Ergaste to Mascarille (IV. 9, p. 59)
Lélie blundered, but destiny is unkind to both Lélie and Mascarille.
Lorsqu’un rival s’éloigne, un autre plus funeste/ S’en revient enlever tout l’espoir qui nous reste. Mascarille à Ergaste (IV. vii)
[As soon as one rival withdraws, another and a more dangerous one starts up to destroy what little hope there was left. However, by a wonderful stratagem, I believe I shall be as left.] Mascarille to Ergaste (IV. 9, p. 59)
Yet Mascarille comes up with a new stratagem. There has been a theft, so he will bribe some officers who will imprison all gypsies, including Andrès.
1665Il s’est fait un grand vol, par qui, l’on n’en sait rien;/ Eux autres rarement passent pour gens de bien:/ Je veux adroitement sur un soupçon frivole,/ Faire pour quelques jours emprisonner ce drôle;/ Je sais des officiers de justice altérés … Mascarille à Ergaste (IV. vii, v 1663-)
[A great robbery has lately been committed, by whom, nobody knows. These gipsies have not generally the reputation of being very honest; upon this slight suspicion, I will cleverly get the fellow imprisoned for a few days. I know some officers of justice, open to a bribe, who will not hesitate on such an occasion ; greedy and expecting some present, there is nothing they will not attempt with their eyes shut; be the accused ever so innocent, the purse is always criminal, and must pay for the offence.] Mascarille to Ergaste (IV. 9. p. 60)
This stratagem could have worked, but Lélie will not let anyone imprison a “respectable” man. Andrès is not a gypsy.
Par les soins vigilants de l’exempt balafré,/ Ton affaire allait bien, le drôle était coffré,/ Si ton maître au moment ne fût venu lui-même,/ 1680 En vrai désespéré rompre ton stratagème: «Je ne saurais souffrir, a-t-il dit hautement,/ Qu’un honnête homme soit traîné honteusement;/ J’en réponds sur sa mine, et je le cautionne»:/ Et comme on résistait à lâcher sa personne,/ 1685 D’abord il a chargé si bien sur les recors,/ Qui sont gens d’ordinaire à craindre pour leurs corps,/ Qu’à l’heure que je parle ils sont encore en fuite,/ Et pensent tous avoir un Lélie à leur suite. Ergaste à Mascarille (V.I, v. 1677-)
[The constable took great care everything was going on smoothly; the fellow would have been in jail, had not your master come up that very moment, and, like a madman spoiled your plot. “I cannot suffer,” says he in a loud voice, “that a respectable man should be dragged to prison in this disgraceful manner; I will be responsible for him, from his very looks, and will be his bail.”] Ergaste to Mascarille (V.I, p. 60)
Andrès buys Célie, who once loved him, and is about to take her away. She persuades Andrès to defer their trip because she has a violent headache and would like to rest until it has abated. Mascarille quickly turns himself into a Swiss who can rent a house he has quickly transformed into an inn by posting a sign. Mascarille once planned to take Célie to the same house while Léandre negotiated marrying Célie with his father.
This stratagem may also have worked, but enters Lélie who learns from Andrès that he has bought Célie who is resting in a house that belongs to Lélie’s father and is looked after by Mascarille. He believes Andrès will let him marry Célie, but Andrès has other plans.
The Anagnorisis
At this point, nothing can be done. The laws of comedy, its formulaic happy ending, and the hand of destiny must rescue Lélie.
In Scene Five, Lélie asks Mascarille to shed his disguise. He thinks matters have been dealt with. We revisit Act One, Scene Four where Lélie believes that all that remains to be done is negotiating the price that will allow him to marry Célie. Similarly, five acts later, Lélie believes Andrès will let him marry the woman he loves: Célie. He doesn’t know how to thank Andrès who tells him not to thanks him.
Non, ne m’en [remerciements] faites point, je n’en veux nullement. Andrès à Lélie (V.iv, v. 1806)
[No, give me none ; I will have none.] Andrès to Lélie (V. 6, p. 164)
In Scene Five, speaks about his success to Mascarille. He is proud.
J’aurai c’est honneur d’avoir fini l’ouvrage. Lélie à Mascarille (V.v, v. 1835) Soit; vous aurez été bien plus heureux que sage. Mascarille à Lélie (V.v, v. 1836)
[… mine will be the honour of having finished the work.] Lélie to Mascarille (V. 9, p. 65)
[You have been more lucky than wise.] Mascarille to Lélie (V. 9, p. 65)
In Scene Six, Andrès says that he will not give Célie to Lélie
1841 Mais enfin, ce bienfait aurait trop de rigueur, S’il fallait le payer aux dépens de mon cœur ; Jugez, dans le transport où sa beauté me jette
Si je dois à ce prix vous acquitter ma dette … Andrès à Lélie (V.vi)
[… but this kindness would be too dearly bought were I to repay it at the expense of my heart. Judge, by the rapture her beauty causes me, whether I ought to discharge my debt to you at such a price.] Andrès to Lélie (V. 9, p. 65)
Dénouement
Hippolyte and Célie
the gypsies fighting: good and bad
the Egyptian woman recognizes Zanobio Ruberti, Célie’s real father
Andrès has also found his father: Zanobio Ruberti
Hippolyte has joined the group. She tells Célie that her beauty has stolen hearts. She has lost Léandre. She can tell, however, the “irresistible sway of your [Célie’s] charms.” She does not begrudge Célie. In fact, she has not lost Léandre. It is Célie who has lost Lélie.
The moment we have awaited has come. Mascarille tells in a récit that a bad gypsy had taken Célie from her. These two gypsy women have just had a terrible fight. One was the woman who stole Célie and the other, the good gypsy, or the woman who has been looking for Zanobio Ruberti and finds him:
« C’est vous, si quelque erreur n’abuse ici mes yeux,/ Qu’on m’a dit qui viviezinconnu dans ces lieux»,/ A-t-elle dit tout haut, « ô! rencontre opportune!/ 1960Oui, seigneur Zanobio Ruberti, la fortune/ Me fait vous reconnaître … Votre femme, je crois, conçut tant de douleur,/ Que cela servit fort pour avancer sa vie:/ Si bien qu’entre mes mains cette fille ravie,/ Me faisant redouter un reproche fâcheux,/ Je vous fis annoncer la mort de toutes deux:/… 1975Mais il faut maintenant, puisque je l’ai connue,/ Qu’elle fasse savoir ce qu’elle est devenue ; Au nom de Zanobio Ruberti, que sa voix… Mascarille/l’Égyptienne (V.ix, v. 1955- )
[“It is you, unless my sight misgives me, who, I was informed, lived privately in this town; most happy meeting! Yes, Signer Zanobio Ruberti, fortune made me find you out at the very moment I was giving myself so much trouble for your sake.”
(…)
but now, as I have found out the thief, she must tell us what has become of your child.”] Mascarille/l’Égyptienne (V. 14)
Hearing Trufaldin’s real name, Andrès realizes that Trufaldin is Zanobio Ruberti and tells him that he has found his father.
Au nom de Zanobio Ruberti, que sa voix … [At the name of Zanobio Ruberti …] Horace/Andrés
1983 Oui, mon père, je suis Horace votre fils,/ D’Albert qui me gardait les jours étant finis,/ Me sentant naître au cœur d’autres inquiétudes/ Je sortis de Bologne, et quittant mes études,/Portai durant six ans mes pas en divers lieux,/Selon que me poussait un désir curieux … Andrès à Trufaldin (V. ix, v. 1983 – )
[I am Horatio, your son; my tutor, Albert, having died, I felt anew certain uneasiness in my mind, left Bologna, and abandoning my studies, wandered about for six years in different places, according as my curiosity led me.] Andrès à Trufaldin(V. 14, p. 68)
The Consequences: marriages
Enfin, pour retrancher ce que plus à loisir,/ Vous aurez le moyen de vous faire éclaircir,/ Par la confession de votre Égyptienne,/ Trufaldin maintenant vous reconnaît pour sienne; / 2005 Andrès est votre frère; et comme de sa sœur/ Il ne peut plus songer à se voir possesseur,/ Une obligation qu’il prétend reconnaître,/ A fait qu’il vous obtient pour épouse à mon maître;/ Dont le père témoin de tout l’événement,/ 2010 Donne à cette hyménée un plein consentement … Mascarille, surtout (V.ix) [… in one word (to tell you shortly that which you will have an opportunity of learning afterwards more at your leisure, from the confession of the old gipsywoman), Trufaldin owns you (to Celia) now for his daughter; Andres is your brother; and as he can no longer think of marrying his sister, and as he acknowledges he is under some obligation to my master, Lelio, he has obtained for him your hand. Pandolphus being present at this discovery, gives his full consent to the marriage; and to complete the happiness of the family, proposes that the newly-found Horatio should marry his daughter. See how many incidents are produced at one and the same time!
Mascarille, mostly (V. 14, p. 68)
Lélie will marry Célie. As for his rival Léandre, he apologizes to Hippolyte who crave[s] “nothing but a generous pardon.” As for Andrès/Horatio, he cannot marry his sister. He embraces Lélie. But Mascarille is empty-handed…
His own enemy …
Yes, Lélie crosses Mascarille’s stratagems, but fate plays a role in these failed attempts… So does virtue. Lélie returns his purse to Anselme, and does so spontaneously. Célie is his own enemy. For instance, when a courier prevents Mascarille, not Léandre, from purchasing Célie, can Lélie tell that the purchaser is Mascarille. Lélie realizes that he is his own enemy, but Mascarille forgives quickly and uses another ruse. Lélie does brandish a sword, only to drop it. But Mascarille stops him:
Fût-il jamais au monde un esprit moins sensé! Mascarille (III.iv, v. 1053) Was there ever in the world a creature so dull of understanding? Mascarille ( III. 4, p. 41)
Ancient roots: killing Pandolfe
virtue and virtuosity
“killing” Pandolfe: atavistic
As in other Molière plays, the threat to the marriage of the young lovers stems from within and, to a significant extent, from a conflict between virtue and virtuosity, or the immunity given the trickster. Mascarille’s stratagems are morally questionable. After killing Pandolfe, he fears Pandolfe. He therefore asks Lélie to make sure he and his father are reconciled. Comedy is rooted in ancient rituals which at times included the killing of an old king. The longest night called for a renewal. Pandolfe is not killed, but it could be said that l’Étourdi is somewhat atavistic, despite the two marriages of its dénouement.
In The Blunderer, the young lover and his valet are separate figures who seem to negate one another. However, one can foresee the juxtaposition in one character of the Lélie who will not accept that Célie be looked upon as a loose woman, and Mascarille who does whatever is needed to bring out the marriage(s) of the dénouement. Lélie inhabits a literal world, where the end does not justify the means, which it does for Mascarille. Mascarille calls himself virtuous, which he is, but upside down. He is a virtuoso among virtuosi, but a marriage there cannot be despite his finest stratagems. Hence, the arrival of Andrès and the old Égyptienne who recognizes and names Zanobio Ruberti, or the anagnorisis.
L’Étourdi is the last play by Molière that we are reading from beginning to end. I have written at least one or more post(s) on each of Molière’s plays. Titles are listed on my Molière page.
We have not read La Critique de l’École des femmes (1st June 1663) and L’Impromptu de Versailles. L’Impromtu de Versailles (14 October 1663) (seeBritannica) is considered a théâtre dans le théâtre, a play within a play, in the broadest acceptation of the term. As for La Critique de l’École de femmes (see Britannica). It was an answer to criticism of l’École des femmes. The plays we have not read in their entirety will be revisited in the light of our recent rereading of all of Molière’s plays.
L’Étourdi ou les Contretemps is known as the very first play Molière wrote. He may have written other plays during the years he toured the provinces of France, from 1645 to 1658. It was written between 1653 and 1655.
Given our circumstances, a pandemic, I did not finish l’Étourdi, but I wish to live as normally as possible. We will therefore finish reading Molière. However, we will concentrate on shorter passages.
He wrote it in approximately 1653 – 1655. Given our circumstances, the pandemic, I did not finish l’Étourdi, but I would like life to remain as normal as possible, so we will finish reading Molière. However, we concentrate on shorter passages.
LÉLIE, (son of) fils de Pandolphe.
CÉLIE, (slave to) esclave de Trufaldin.
MASCARILLE, (lackey to) valet de Lélie.
HIPPOLYTE, (daughter of) fille d’Anselme.
ANSELME, (old man) vieillard.
TRUFALDIN, vieillard.
PANDOLPHE, vieillard.
LÉANDRE, (son) fils de famille.
ANDRÈS, (believed to be) cru égyptien.
ERGASTE, valet.
UN COURRIER.
DEUX TROUPES DE MASQUES.
Act Four, Scene Three
plots : a central plot and related stratagems
a view of the world
L’Étourdi is yet another comedy. Lélie loves Célie but so does Léandre. Therefore, as is the case with all comedies, Lélie has a rival who can buy Célie, Trufaldin’s slave. That is an obstacle to Lélie marrying his “divinity.” Pandolfe, Lélie’s father is also an obstacle. His son Lélie does not have financial independence. Lélie must therefore ask his valet to help secure the woman is love.
… Monsieur votre père/ est un autre qui ne vous laisse pas/ Comme vous voudriez bien, manier ses ducats … Mascarille à Lélie (I.ii, v 100 …)
[That your father is just as covetous an old hunk,
who does not allow you to handle his ducats, …] Mascarille to Lélie (I. 3, p. 10)
Inside this frame plot, are a series of attempts, stratagems, Mascarille devises to capture Célie, but these are foiled by Lélie himself. Therefore, Lélie seems his own worst enemy, which he is but not entirely. He is virtuous to the point of refusing to hear that Clélie is a loose woman. He defends her and, in the process, pulls the rug from under Mascarille feet. He does not operate in the same manner as Mascarille whose virtue is to discourage Léandre from marrying Célie. Mascarille tells him that Célie is a loose woman, which is a lie that serves Lélie. Lélie will not hear that Célie is anything other than his divinity. He will not allow Léandre to think otherwise. So Léandre learns that Mascarille has played him.
Mascarille’s Stratagems
Although l’Étourdi has a frame plot, we see several attempts, Mascarille’s stratagems, to capture Célie, all of which are spoiled by Lélie. Molière has once again made the “lover” his own worst enemy. Lélie seems a scatterbrain, a translation of l’Étourdi. But he and Mascarille are also the victims of destiny.
You may remember that two fathers Pandolfe and Anselme had arranged for Lélie, Panolfe’s son, to marry Hippolyte, Anselme’s daughter. After Mascarille and Lélie’s make believe Pandolfe has died, Anselme decides that his daughter Hippolyte will marry Léandre, the son of good parents who has a little money and could buy Célie.
Léandre’s Maskerade
reckless
humiliating
However, Léandre arranges a maskerade. His women (men disguised as women) will assault Trufaldin’s house and capture Célie. Trufaldin is forewarned and, in the English translation, he gives Léandre perfume (a cassolette in the original French). The perfume is not perfume. It stinks, which suggests that it contains Célie’s excrements.
Fi, cela sent mauvais, et je suis tout gâté./ Nous sommes découverts, tirons de ce côté. Léandre à tous (III.ix)
[Faugh. This does not smell nicely. My clothes are all spoiled; we are discovered; let us be gone away.] Leandre to all(III.13)
Anselme on Love
Anselme would love to be loved. He hears that Nérine loves him and wants to give money to Mascarille to sustain Nérine’s love. But in Act Four, Scene Three, he is a father to Léandre and, at the very beginning, the conversation is from man to man. The conversation is prompted by Léandre’s catastrophic assault on Trufaldin’s house
Je ne vous parle point en père de ma fille,/ En homme intéressé pour ma propre famille;/ Mais comme votre père ému pour votre bien … Anselme à Léandre (IV.iii)
[I do not speak to you as the father of Hippolyta, as a man interested for my own family, but as your father, anxious for your welfare…] Anselme to Léandre (IV. 4, p. 54)
Anselme’s “réplique,” a tirade, soon turns to the needs of his daughter, Hippolyte, and Anselme’ own needs. He has now made arrangements for her to marry Léandre. Hippolyte loves Léandre. In fact, Mascarille is also working for her.
… Bref, comme je voudrais, d’un âme franche et pure,/ Que l’on fît à mon sang en pareil aventure.
Anselme (IV. iii)
[In short, openly and honestly, as I would wish a child of mine to be treated upon the like occasion.] Anselme to Léandre (IV. 4, p. 54)
Anselme knows that people are laughing at his effort to capture Célie. In doing so, he is inviting laughter, which is the worst of punishment.
Savez-vous de quel œil chacun voit cet amour,/ Qui dedans une nuit vient d’éclater au jour?/ A combien de discours et de traits de risée/ Votre entreprise d’hier est partout exposée. Anselme à Léandre (IV.iii)
[Do you know how everybody regards this amour of yours, which in one night has burst forth? How your yesterday’s undertaking is everywhere talked of and ridiculed?] Anselme to Léandre (IV. 4, p. 54)
She is a “gypsy” to most, except Lélie
Anselme also criticizes Léandre’s choice of a gypsy. One doesn’t know Célie’s background and wisdom has it that we not seek far beyond what is in plain sight. Lélie knows Célie, but Léandre doesn’t.
J’en ai rougi pour vous, encor plus que pour moi,/ Qui me trouve compris dans l’éclat que je voi,/Moi, dis-je, dont la fille à vos ardeurs promise,/ Ne peut sans quelque affront souffrir qu’on la méprise./ Ah! Léandre, sortez de cet abaissement! Anselme à Léandre (IV. iii)
[I really blushed for you, even more than I did for myself, who am also compromised by this public scandal. Yes, I am compromised, I say, I whose daughter, being engaged to you, cannot bear to see her slighted, without taking offence at it.] Anselme à Léandre (IV. 4, p. 54)
Ah! Léandre, sortez de cet abaissement; 1470 Ouvrez un peu les yeux sur votre aveuglement:/ Si notre esprit n’est pas sage à toutes les heures,/ Les plus courtes erreurs sont toujours les meilleures. Anselme à Léandre (IV. iii)
[For shame, Leander; arise from your humiliation; consider well your infatuation; if none of us are wise at all times, yet the shortest errors are always the best.] Anselme to Léandre (IV. 4, p. 54)
The above quotations describe the behaviour that is expected in l’Étourdi’s society. Hippolyte’s father does not want his daughter to marry someone who assaults a man’s house to capture a woman he does know. Léandre has fallen in love with a beautiful face. Beauty does not reveal the character of a woman. That belongs to the realm of appearances, which, as we have seen, are “trompeuses” according to Pascal (see Sources and Resources) and many 17th century writers and thinkers.
Léandre tells Mascarille that he has seen’s Célie’s face:
Vous pourriez l’épouser? Mascarille à Léandre (III. ii)
[Would you marry her?] … Je ne sais; mais enfin,/ Si quelque obscurité se trouve en son destin,/ Sa grâce et sa vertu sont de douces amorces,/ Qui pour tirer les cœurs sont d’incroyablesforces. Léandre à Mascarille (III.ii)
[I am not yet determined, but if her origin is somewhat obscure, her charms and her virtue are gentle attractions, which have incredible force to allure every heart.] Léandre to Mascarille (III. 2, p. 38)
Lélie knows Célie’s cœur. Léandre doesn’t, which he must. Moreover, is the society of the play ready to accept Célie. In 17th France/Italy, society was mostly homogeneous. Besides, Léandre made a fool of himself by assaulting Trufaldin’s house with a masked brigade. He was humiliated by Trufaldin.
More importantly, passion does not last. Other bonds are created that unite a man and a woman. Marriage can be the most beautiful of commitments. Anselme’s view of love already reflects the view expressed in Madame de La Fayette‘s Princesse de Clèves (1678). Jealousy keeps love alive. When a woman marries, she loses the love of the man she loves. Madame de Clèves will not marry Monsieur de Nemours, for fear he will no longer love her, which would cause her infinite pain. Le Prince de Clèves dies because his wife loves Monsieur de Nemours; grief kills him.
Moreover, it is true that a woman can divide a family. Prince Harry cannot travel to the UK to see sick and/or ageing family. Miseries can follow a marriage. One chooses well.
Quand on ne prend en dot que la seule beauté,/ Le remords est bien près de la solennité, 1475/ Et la plus belle femme a très peu de défense,/ Contre cette tiédeur qui suit la jouissance:/ Je vous le dis encor, ces bouillants mouvements,/ Ces ardeurs de jeunesse, et ces emportements,/ Nous font trouver d’abord quelques nuits agréables:/ 1480 Mais ces félicités ne sont guère durables,/ Et notre passion alentissant son cours,/ Après ces bonnes nuits donnent de mauvais jours./ De là viennent les soins, les soucis, les misères,/ Les fils déshérités par le courroux des pères. Anselme à Léandre (IV. iii)
[When a man receives no dowry with his wife, but beauty only, repentance follows soon after wedlock; and the handsomest woman in the world; can hardly defend herself against a lukewarmness caused by possession. I repeat it, those fervent raptures, those youthful ardours and ecstacies, may make us pass a few agreeable nights, but this bliss is not at all lasting, and as our passions grow cool, very unpleasant days follow those pleasant nights; hence proceed cares, anxieties, miseries, sons disinherited through their fathers’ wrath.] Anselme to Léandre (IV. 4, p. 54)
Sous quel astre ton maître a-t-il reçu le jour? (Célie, v. 152) Dessins par Lorentz, Jules David, etc. Gravures par les meilleurs artistes, Paris, Schneider, 1850. (fr.wikipedia)
When Anselme changes his mind and replaces Lélie with Léandre, Hippolyte takes Léandre aside so she can tell him what could hurt him. She is an understanding woman which will serve her and her relationship with her husband. Her father wants her to marry Léandre, so she will tell him as they walk, holding hands, toward the temple.
Je dois vous annoncer, Léandre, une nouvelle;/ Mais la trouverez-vous agréable,ou cruelle?
Hyppolyte à Léandre (II.viii)
[I have some news for you, Leander, but will you be pleased or displeased with it?] Hippolyte to Léandre (II. 10, p.32) Pour en pouvoir juger, et répondre soudain, Il faudrait la savoir. Léandre à Hippolyte (II.viii)
[To judge of that, and make answer off-hand, I should know it.] Léandre to Hippolyte (II. 10, p. 32) Donnez-moi donc la main jusqu’au temple, en marchant je pourrai vous l’apprendre. Hippolyte à Léandre (II.viii)
[Give me your hand, then, as far as the church, and I will tell it you as we go.] Hippolyte to Léandre (II.10, p. 33)
The Good Wife is an archetypal figure.
Léandre tells Anselme that he has imagined all the consequences Anselme has discussed. Act Four, Scene Three reveals Molière’s knowledge of human nature. Anselme is one of Molière finest raisonneurs. Yet Léandre’s cœur will benefit from lessons life has taught Anselme. Léandre feels unworthy of so good a wife as Hippolyte.
1485Dans tout votre discours, je n’ai rien écouté,/ Que mon esprit déjà ne m’ait représenté./ Je sais, combien je dois, à cet honneur insigne,/ Que vous me voulez faire, et dont je suis indigne,/ Et vois, malgré l’effort dont je suis combattu,/ 1490 Ce que vaut votre fille, et quelle est sa vertu:/ Aussi veux-je tâcher… Léandre à Anselme (IV. iii)
[All that I now hear from you is no more than what my own reason has already suggested to me. I know how much I am obliged to you for the great honour you are inclined to pay me, and of which I am unworthy. In spite of the passion which sways me, I have ever retained a just sense of your daughter’s merit and virtue: therefore I will endeavour . . .
Léandre to Anselme (IV. 4, p. 54)
Somebody is opening this door; let us retire to a distance, lest some contagion spreads from it, which may attack you suddenly.]
In a footnote, Henri van Laun, our translator, writes that Victor Hugo looked upon L’Étourdi as the best written of Molière’s plays.
Victor Hugo appears to be of another opinion. M. Paul Stapfer, in his les Artistes juges et parties (2ième Causerie, the Grammarian of Hauteville House, p. 55), states: “the opinion of Victor Hugo about Moliere is very peculiar. According to him, the best written of all the plays of our great comic author is his first work, L’Etourdi. It possesses a brilliancy and freshness of style which still shine in le Depit amoureux, but which gradually fade, because Moliere, yielding unfortunately to other inspirations than his own, enters more and more upon a new way.” (p. 4)
In a previous post on Molière’s L’Étourdi ou les Contretemps, I noted that Mascarille, the rogue of L’Étourdi, looks upon his stratagems as virtuous. However, to be perfectly accurate, Mascarille is a virtuoso. Virtuosity suggests considerable dexterity, which describes Mascarille’s nimbleness.
LÉLIE, (son of) fils de Pandolphe.
CÉLIE, (slave to) esclave de Trufaldin.
MASCARILLE, (lackey to) valet de Lélie.
HIPPOLYTE, (daughter of) fille d’Anselme.
ANSELME, (old man) vieillard.
TRUFALDIN, vieillard.
PANDOLPHE, vieillard.
LÉANDRE, (son) fils de famille.
ANDRÈS, (believed to be) cru égyptien.
ERGASTE, valet.
UN COURRIER.
DEUX TROUPES DE MASQUES
Lélie defends Célie’s virtue
You may remember that in Act Three, Mascarille tells Léandre, Lélie’s rival, that Clélie is a loose woman. Léandre does not want to marry a woman who is “public property.” However, Lélie so loves Célie that he will not believe Léandre who says that she is stained. She is as pure as the morning dew. He calls her his divinity
Feignez, si vous voulez, de ne me pas entendre;/ 1005Mais, croyez-moi, cessez de craindre pour un bien,/ Où je serais fâché de vous disputer rien;/ J’aime fort la beauté qui n’est point profanée,/ Et ne veux point brûler pour une abandonnée. Léandre à Lélie (III. iii)
[Pretend, if you please, not to understand me ; but believe me, do not apprehend that I shall take a property which I should be sorry to dispute with you. I adore a beauty who has not been sullied, and do not wish to love a depraved woman.] Léandre to Lélie (III. 3, p. 39)
Ah! que vous êtes bon!/ 1010 Allez, vous dis-je encor, servez-la sans soupçon,/Vous pourrez vous nommer homme à bonnes fortunes: Il est vrai, sa beauté n’est pas des plus communes;/ Mais en revanche aussi le reste est fort commun. Léandre à Lélie (III. iii)
[Oh! how credulous you are! I tell you once more, you may attend on her now without suspecting anybody. You may call yourself a lady-killer. It is true, her beauty is very uncommon, but, to make amends for that, the rest is common enough.] Léandre to Lélie (III. 3, p. 39)
Ce que j’avance ici me vient de bonne part. Léandre à Lélie (III. iii)
[What I state here I have from very good authority.] Léandre to Lélie (III. 3, p. 40)
Quiconque vous l’a dit, est un lâche, un pendard;/ On ne peut imposer de tache à cette fille:/ Je connais bien son cœur. Lélie à Léandre (III. iii)
[Whoever told you so is a scoundrel and a rascal. Nobody can discover the least blemish in this young lady; I know her heart well.] Lélie to Léandre (III. 3, p. 40)
Mascarille has told Léandre that Célie is not the pure woman she appears to be. How can he doubt Mascarille?
Mais enfin Mascarille,/1025D’un semblable procès est juge compétent;/ C’est lui qui la condamne. Léandre à Lélie (III. iii)
[But yet Mascarille is a very competent judge in such a cause: he thinks her guilty.] Léandre to Lélie (III. 3, p. 40)
Act Three, Scene Four
When Mascarille enters the stage, Lélie is livid.
1035 Langue de serpent fertile en impostures,/ Vous osez sur Célie attacher vos morsures!/ Et lui calomnier la plus rare vertu,/ Qui puisse faire éclat sous un sort abattu! Lélie à Mascarille (III. iv)
[You serpent’s tongue! so full of lies! dare you fasten your stings on Celia, and slander the most consummate virtue that ever added lustre to misfortune?] Lélie to Mascarille (III. 4, p. 40)
At this point, Léandre learns that Lélie does not beat Mascarille. Lélie is spoiling Mascarille’s stratagem, which is to make others believe that they must trust him, because his master beats him. Mascarille tries to stop Lélie from saying the truth, but Lélie does not pay attention to him.
Quoi! châtier mes gens n’est pas en ma puissance? Lélie à Léandre (III. iv)
[What! have I no right, then, to chastise my own servant?] Lélie to Léandre (III. 4, p. 41)
Comment vos gens? Léandre à Lélie (III. iv)
[What do you mean by saying “your servant?”] Léandre to Lélie (III. 4, p. 41)
Encore! Il va tout découvrir. Mascarille (III. iv)
[(Aside.) He is at it again! He will discover all.] Mascarille (III. 4, p. 41)
Quand j’aurais volonté de le battre à mourir,/ Hé bien? c’est mon valet. Lélie à Léandre (III. iv)
[Suppose I had a mind to thrash him within an inch of his life, what then? He is my own servant.] Lélie to Léandre (III. 4, p. 41)
… C’est maintenant le nôtre. Léandre à Mascarille (III. iv)
[At present he is mine.] Léandre to Lélie (III. 4, p. 41)
Donc les coups de bâton n’étaient qu’imaginaires. Léandreà Mascarille (III. iv)
Then all this cudgelling is purely imaginary? Léandre to Mascarille (III. 4, p. 42)
Léandre leaves.
The Masquerades
As Act Three ends, Ergaste tells both Mascarille and Lélie, that he knows of a plot by Léandre. Léandre’s brigade will assault Trufaldin’s house, wearing a disguise, and will abduct Célie. They will be women. Lélie runs to Trufaldin asking him to keep his doors carefully closed.
Fermez soigneusement votre porte ce soir. Lélie à Trufaldin (III. vii)
[Keep your door carefully closed tonight.] Lélie to Trufaldin (III. 10, p. 46)
However, when Mascarille hears about the planned assault, he quickly gathers a brigade of his own that reaches Trufaldin’s house before Léandre and his team. Lélie finds Mascarille behind a disguise. He therefore blunders again and blames Mascarille. See the image at the bottom of this post. It is by François Boucher and Laurent Cars, and shows Mascarille dressed as a woman. Lélie lifts the veil.
Et contre cet assaut je sais un coup fourré,/ Par qui je veux qu’il soit de lui-même enferré;/ Il ne sait pas les dons dont mon âme est pourvue./Adieu, nous boirons pinte à la première vue. Mascarille à Ergaste (III. v)
[Ay, well! He has not yet reached the height of his happiness; I may perhaps be beforehand with him; and as to this thrust, I know how to give him a counter- thrust, by which he may run himself through. He is not aware with what gifts I am endowed. Farewell, we shall take a cup together next time we meet.] Mascarille to Ergaste (III. 6, p. 45)
Mascarille’s masquerade’s is foiled by Lélio. He blunders again. But he claims not to have been ignored only to switch to self-imprecation. Lélie/Lelio blames Mascarille only to blame himself. However is he entirely to blame? “How adverse is our fate!” Mascarille is a virtuoso, but there are “contretemps,” events that are always standing in both Lélie’s and Mascarille’s way.
Hélas! quelle surprise! et quel sort est le nôtre! L’aurais-je deviné,n’étant point averti/ 1230Des secrètes raisons qui t’avaient travesti!/ Malheureux que je suis, d’avoir dessous ce masque,/ Été sans y penser te faire cette frasque!/ Il me prendrait envie, en ce juste courroux,/ De me battre moi-même, et me donner cent coups. Lélie à Mascarille (III. viii)
[Alas! How astonished I am! How adverse is our fate! Could I possibly have guessed this, as you did not secretly inform me that you were going to disguise yourself?Wretch that I am, thoughtlessly to play you such a trick, while you wore this mask. I am in an awful passion with myself, and have a good mind to give myself a sound beating.] Lélio to Mascarille (III. 12, p. 46)
In Act Three Scene Nine, Léandre’s brigade arrives. Trufaldin tells them that:
… La belle est dans le lit, et ne peut vous parler;/ 1250 J’en suis fâché pour vous: mais pour vous régaler/ Du souci qui pour elle ici vous inquiète,/ Elle vous fait présent de cette cassolette. Trufaldin à Léandre (III. ix)
[… the girl is in her bed and cannot speak to you; I am sorry; but to repay you for all the trouble you have taken for her sake, she begs you will be pleased to accept this pot of perfume.] Trufaldin to Léandre (III. 13, pp. 47 – 48)
We break here. Next we will read a conversation between Léandre and Anselme.
It is Act Four, Scene Three. The rest of the play is short. Lélie has a second rival.
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