The Red River Settlement

30 Saturday May 2015

Posted by michelinewalker in Aboriginals, Métis, Voyageurs

Tags

Hudson's Bay Company, Métis Leader Cuthbert Grant, Miles Macdonell, North West Company, Peter Rindisbacher, Robert Semple, The Pemmican Proclamation, The Red River Colony, The Seven Oaks Incident, Thomas Douglas 5th Earl of Selkirk

Colonists came …

Eventually, colonists came. It was inevitable. Generations of refugees and other immigrants found a home north of the 49^th parallel which would become, for the most part, the border dividing the United States and Canada. Much of the Earl of Selkirk‘s Assiniboia,[1] as the Red River Colony was named, would be North Dakota and spill somewhat beyond. It was the land of the Métis.

Colonists on the Red River in North America (1822) by Peter Rindisbacher (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Assiniboia (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

(Please click on the map ↑ to enlarge it.)

Thomas Douglas, the 5th Earl of Selkirk (Photo credit: The Canadian Encyclopedia)

The Red River Settlement (1811 – 1815)

Thomas Douglas, the 5^thEarl of Selkirk
crofters
Assiniboia (the current Manitoba and North Dakota)
Miles Macdonell
the Hudson’s Bay Company

When he unexpectedly inherited his family’s wealth, Thomas Douglas, the 5^thEarl of Selkirk was motivated to find land for crofters. (See Highland Clearances, Wikipedia.) The “crofters” were being displaced by their landlords and many had nowhere to go. The Earl of Selkirk settled some crofters in Belfast, Prince Edward Island (1803) and others in Baldoon, Upper Canada (Ontario).

However, in 1811, he was granted 300,000 km²(116,000 square miles) of arable land by the Hudson’s Bay Company, and founded the Red River Colony. In fact, the Earl of Selkirk and members of his family had bought enough shares in the Hudson’s Bay Company to control it. The colony would be called Assiniboia.

Miles Macdonell

Thomas Douglas, Earl of Selkirk, appointed Miles Macdonell as governor of Assiniboia and the latter established his base at the confluence of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers, the current downtown Winnipeg, Manitoba.

The first group of displaced crofters and some Irish immigrants travelled by way of the Hudson Bay and wintered at York Factory. They arrived in Assiniboia on 29 August 1812, escorted by its governor Miles Macdonell. A second group arrived in October and further groups followed every year until 1815.

Fur-trading country

The Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC)
The North West Company (NWC)
The Métis

Not only had these settlers been sent to an area of Canada where winters were long and extremely harsh, which threatened their survival, but the Red River was home to Métis, many of whom were in the employ of North West Company or related to employees of the Montreal-based North West Company. The North West Company, established in 1779, was a rival to the Hudson’s Bay Company, established in 1670. But, as noted above and more importantly, the Red River had already been colonized by Métis: people of European origin, Frenchmen mainly, but also Scots and others, who had married Amerindians.

Many Métis originated from Lower Canada (Quebec), so the division of land along the Red River mirrored that of New France, down to the relatively narrow strips of land abutting the Red River. The “Red” constituted the Métis’ and other voyageurs‘ “highway.” One travelled by canoe, when the weather permitted, or toboggan, when the River was frozen.

Métis and Settlers

In short, it would be difficult for the inhabitants of the Red River to accept newcomers. Unknowingly, at that point in history, the Métis had developed a sense of community. In fact, the situation of the Canadien voyageurs resembled that of Jacques Cartier’s men dying of scurvy and saved by Amerindians. French settlers may not have survived without the assistance of Amerindians.

Similarly, voyageurs needed the skills Amerindians had developed. They also needed the food they prepared as well as their guidance in an unchartered territory. Moreover, fur-trading posts being a long distance away from the shores of the St. Lawrence River and other “homes,” voyageurs needed wives. A nation grew: the Métis nation.

Therefore, reticent Métis enticed many colonists back to Canada by promising better land. (See The Red River Colony, The Canadian Encyclopedia.) There were, no doubt, other shenanigans, a word the origin of which has yet to be determined, but which seems an Amerindian word.

The Pemmican Proclamation

At any rate, fearing a lack of food for the settlers, governor Macdonell forbade the exportation of pemmican out of Assiniboia. Amerindians and Métis prepared pemmican for the voyageurs. This is how voyageurs were fed. When he issued the Pemmican Proclamation, on 8 January 1814, Miles Macdonell acted recklessly.

The Pemmican Proclamation was not viewed by Nor’Westers as an unwise decision on the part of the rather “belligerent” Miles Macdonell. (See Miles Macdonell, The Canadian Encyclopedia.) It was viewed instead as a low blow dealt by the Hudson’s Bay Company, which does not appear to be the case.

Buffalo hunting in the summer (1822)

Assiniboine hunting buffalo on horseback (1830)

Peter Rindisbacher’s Swiss family was recruited by an agent of the Earl of Selkirk. Peter specialized in watercolours and his subject matter was Assiniboia. Later, he and his family moved to St. Louis. To my knowledge, we have few if any other sources of images from the Selkirk Settlement other than Rindisbacher’s art. Born in 1806, Peter died in 1834, at the age of 28.

Running of buffalo banned

Governor Macdonell then made matters worse by forbidding not only the exportation of pemmican out of Assiniboia, but also the running of buffalo with horses, a manner used by Amerindians to hunt buffalos. Buffalo meat was sustenance. How would voyageurs and other citizens of the established Red River area feed themselves and survive?

From Rivalry to Enmity: Macdonell arrested

Miles Macdonell had therefore transformed a rivalry between competing fur-trading companies into enmity. Nor’Westers feared the HBC was attempting to penetrate the Athabascan country to the north. Moreover, the HBC captured Fort Gilbratar (NWC) and the North West Company retaliated by taking Fort Brandon, led by Métis Cuthbert Grant.

Métis Leader Cuthbert Grant (The Canadian Encyclopedia)

Amerindians and Métis

By extension, Macdonell had also pitted the Métis nation against the immigrants. Intercepting “brigades” of canoes filled with provisions wasn’t an acceptable way of feeding impoverished crofters. In the end, in June 1815, Governor Macdonell had to surrender to NWC (North West Company) representatives, standing accused of “illegally confiscating pemmican.” He was sent to Montreal to be tried. (See the Pemmican Proclamation, The Canadian Encyclopedia.) However, there would be no trial and, according to Wikipedia, Miles Macdonell had resigned.

The Battle of Seven Oaks

Seven Oaks, 19 June 1816, is viewed as an incident, but there was some provocation. However, to be cautious, I will use the word “incident” because the clash at Seven Oaks seems unpremeditated. Nor’Westers, escorted by Cuthbert Grant, were retrieving pemmican stolen by HBC men to sell it to Nor’Westers, their customers. But accounts differ. The Métis may have been on their way to escort a “brigade” of canoes transporting pemmican. I have just, 30 May, added a quotation. It seems that when the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) took Fort Gilbratar (NWC), they exposed canoe brigades containing provisions.[2]

Be that as it may, the Métis accidentally crossed paths with Governor Robert Semple and settlers. Governor Semple was Miles Macdonell’s replacement and appointed by the Earl of Selkirk. Semple had left Fort Douglas where he was secure. In the battle that ensued, he and twenty of his men were killed. There were two Métis casualty.

The Earl of Selkirk’s Response

Some colonists left and a few settled in Saskatchewan. However, others settled in the current Manitoba. On 13 August, 1816, when Lord Selkirk heard of the incident at Seven Oaks, he seized Fort William and them recaptured Fort Douglas on 10 January 1817. According to the Canadian Encyclopedia,

“[w]hen Selkirk finally arrived that July, he distributed land and restored the settlers’ confidence, promising them schools and clergymen. Roman Catholic priests arrived in 1818, but not until 1820 did a Protestant missionary come, and John West was Anglican rather than a Gaelic-speaking Presbyterian, a source of grievance to the Scots settlers for years.” (See The Red River Colony, The Canadian Encyclopedia.)

That is another story.

Conclusion

The Aboriginal peoples of Canada are still protected by the Royal Proclamation of 1763. It was reaffirmed under Section 35 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, included in the Canada Act of 1982. (See Indigenous Foundations, University of British Columbia [UBC].) They are also protected by the Numbered Treaties, a series of eleven treaties signed after Confederation, from 1871 to 1921, by the Aboriginal peoples in Canada and the reigning British monarch, the Crown.

At the moment, the University of Regina, Saskatchewan, has a federated First Nations University. Programs such as Indigenous Foundations at the University of British Columbia also provide an examination of Canada’s varied past. I have noticed moreover that many aboriginals are moving to cities.

But let us return to the Earl of Selkirk.

After he seized Fort William, a trading post belonging to the North West Company, Lord Selkirk had to appear in court in Montreal to defend himself. He had acted hastily. In 1821, a year after the Earl’s death, at Pau, France, the Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company were merged. The rivalry subsided.

As for the Métis, the Red River Settlement allowed them to realize they had become a nation.

RELATED ARTICLE

Louis Riel as Father of Confederation (22 May 2012)

With kindest regards. ♥
____________________

[1] “Assiniboia”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2015. Web. 26 May. 2015
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/39349/Assiniboia>.

[2] “In the spring of 1816, the HBC officers and men seized and destroyed the Nor’Westers’ Fort Gilbratar at the forks, thus exposing the latter’s canoe brigades, just as the pemmican supplies were being moved down the Assiniboine to meet the Nor’Westers returning from the annual council at Fort William. The HBC’s Fort Douglas thus dominated the Red and denied passage both to the Nor’Westers and the provision boats of their Métis allies.” (Seven Oaks Incident, The Canadian Encyclopedia.)

Peter Rindisbacher (artnet.com)

Canada’s Amerindians: Enfranchisement

24 Sunday May 2015

Posted by michelinewalker in Aboriginals, Enfranchisement

≈ 2 Comments

Tags

"Marrying out", Access to Higher Education, Assimilation, Enfranchisement, Gradual Civilization Act, Maxine Noel, Meech Lake Accord, Oka Crisis

Ancient Messages by Maxine Noel (Sa-Cinn Native Ent. Ltd.)

Maxine Noel

Maxine Noel, who signs her art work by her Sioux name, Ioyan Mani, “to walk beyond,” attended a Residential School. It may have been a good residential school. There are times when one good person makes the difference.

After leaving Residential School, Maxine worked as a legal secretary, but decided to take a course on advanced design and was singled out as a particularly gifted and promising artist.

Her work is lovely. The flowing lines, the composition, the stylization (faces, hands), the graded colours. In the print shown above, the fanciful orangey dots gives a very successful sense of unity to Maxine Noel’s artwork.

—ooo—

“The Great aim of our legislation has been to do away with the tribal system and assimilate the Indian people in all respect with the other inhabitants of the Dominion as speedily as they are fit to change.”

John A. Macdonald
Canada’s first Prime Minister

enfranchisement

Enfranchisement is “terminating a person’s Indian status and conferring full Canadian citizenship” (See Enfranchisement, Indigenous Foundations.)

Enfranchisement, i.e. terminating an Amerindian’s status, is the worst problem Canadian Aboriginals have faced since New France was ceded to Britain, and it was not addressed in the Canada Act of 1982. It is not stated that the Canada Act of 1982 terminates the Indian Act of 1876.

The purpose of Residential Schools was to enfranchise, or assimilate, young Amerindians. Therefore, the development of residential schools was one of many attempts to enfranchise Amerindians. Children are vulnerable and cannot defend themselves.

A New Beginning by Maxine Noel (Sa-Cinn Native Ent. Ltd.)

But let us list a few events:

in 1857 the Gradual Civilization Act was passed;
in 1869 the Gradual Enfranchisement Act was passed;
after Confederation (1967), both Acts were incorporated into the Indian Act of 1876.
in 1885, the federal government banned potlatches, the “Potlatch Law;”
between 1885 and 1925 (1914 and 1925 to be precise), dancing was gradually prohibited: powwows and Sun Dances;
in 1928 the Sexual Sterilization Act was passed in Alberta, allowing any inmate of a native residential school to be sterilized upon the approval of the school Principal. At least 3,500 Indian women are sterilized under this law. (See Hidden from History: The Canadian Holocaust.)

So assimilation, or enfranchisement, was the goal of the Indian Act of 1876 that followed Confederation. It was abusive and several clauses didn’t make sense. In Indigenous Foundations (University of British Columbia [UBC]), we read that:

“[t]he Gradual Enfranchisement Act also granted the Superintendent General of Indian Affairs extreme control over status Indians.” (See Indian Act, Canadian Encyclopedia.)

Of “good moral character”

For instance, as per the Indian Act of 1876, an Amerindian’s status did not depend on his or her being born a status Amerindian, but on his or her being considered a status Amerindian by the Superintendent of Indian Affairs, or another “official.” This policy can be construed as assimilative. A “good moral character” became the criterion used to determine whether or not one was a genuine Aboriginal, with all rights and privileges.

“For example, the Superintendent [of Indian Affairs] had the power to determine who was of “good moral character” and therefore deserve certain benefits, such as deciding if the widow of an enfranchised Indian “lives respectably” and could therefore keep her children in the event of the father’s death. The Act also severely restricted the governing powers of band councils, regulated alcohol consumption and determined who would be eligible for band and treaty benefits. It also marks the beginning of gender-based restrictions to status.” (See Indigenous Foundations, UBC [University of British Columbia].)

The Listener by Maxine Noel (bearclawgallery.com)

The White Paper of 1969: a turning-point

About a century later, assimilation remained the goal, but the rationale was somewhat different. Pierre Elliot Trudeau wanted to put all Canadians on the same footing. Consequently, the White Paper of 1969 reflected that goal. At the time, Jean Chrétien was Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. The White Paper proposed the assimilation of Canadian aboriginals. It therefore unleashed a furore and a ‘Red Paper’ was written. The furore then fizzled out, but the “white paper” was both the culmination of various assimilatory strategies and the beginning of an era when Aboriginals would be protected.

(See The White Paper, Indigenous Foundations [University of British Columbia] UBC.)

“In spite of all government attempts to convince Indians to accept the white paper, their efforts will fail, because Indians understand that the path outlined by the Department of Indian Affairs through its mouthpiece, the Honourable Mr. Chrétien, leads directly to cultural genocide. We will not walk this path.”
Harold Cardinal, “The Unjust Society” (See Harold Cardinal, Wikipedia.)

—ooo—

In order to keep this post relatively brief and precise, I will now use a few quotations.

Access to higher Education

“A First Nations person lost status or ceased being an Amerindian if they graduated university, became a Christian minister, or achieved professional designation as a doctor or lawyer.” (See Indian Act, Canadian Encyclopedia.)

Women could not “marry out,” but men could

Moreover, there was gender discrimination. A woman who married a non-status Indian, lost her status as an aboriginal. Men could ‘marry out.’

“In 1977, the Canadian Human Rights Act was passed. In it, Section 67 exempted it from being applied to provision in the Indian Act, largely understood to be an admission that the Indian Act would not meet human-rights standards. That section was repealed in 2008″ (See Indian Act, Canadian Encyclopedia.)

“In 1981, the United Nations Human Rights Commission ruled that Canada had violated Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in the case of Sandra Lovelace — a Maliseet woman who had lost her status through marriage.” (See Indian Act, Canadian Encyclopedia.)

The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (1991)

The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples was established in 1991 after the Oka Crisis and the Meech Lake Accord.

Oka Crisis, 1990

“The Oka Crisis was a 78-day standoff (11 July–26 September 1990) between Mohawk protesters, police, and army [Royal 22^e Régiment (the “Van Doos”)]. At the heart of the crisis was the proposed expansion of a golf course and development of condominiums on disputed land that included a Mohawk burial ground.” (See Oka Crisis, Canadian Encyclopedia.)

Meech Lake Accord, 1987

As for the Meech Lake Accord, it was an attempt on the part of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney to encourage Quebec to sign the Patriated Constitution of 1982. It was proposed that Quebec be looked upon as a “distinct society.” However, one of the ten provinces objected: Manitoba. “Phil Fontaine was one of the Manitoba First Nation leaders who led the opposition of the Meech Lake Accord.” (See Phil Fontaine and Ovide Mercredi, Wikipedia.)

The Commission found that a new beginning was essential. It produced a 4,000 page report recommending another Royal Proclamation and “set out a twenty-year agenda for implementing changes.” (See The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Wikipedia).

I should think that the Residential School Settlement Agreement (2007 – 2008) and the formal apology presented by Prime Minister Stephen Harper on behalf of all Canadians for harm inflicted on Aboriginals constitute a new beginning.

Let that be my conclusion.

RELATED ARTICLE

Residential Schools for Canada’s Amerindians (21 May 2015)

With kindest regards ♥

Grigory Sokolov plays Jean-Philippe Rameau‘s “Les Sauvages”

To Walk Beyond
Maxine Noel
(albertanativenews.com)

The Jesuit Relations: an invaluable legacy, revisited

22 Friday May 2015

Posted by michelinewalker in Canada, Explorers, History, Missionaries

≈ 42 Comments

Tags

explorers, Jacques Marquette, Louis Jolliet, Missionaries, New France, Relations des Jésuites de la Nouvelle-France, Reuben Gold Thwaites, Society of Jesus

Père Marquette and the Indians [at the Mississippi River], oil painting (1869) by Wilhelm Lamprecht (1838–1906), at Marquette University[I]

Travel

Several visitors to North America have left precious accounts of their trips as well as fine analysis of the people whose lands they visited. For instance, in recent years, Alexis de Tocqueville‘s (29 July 1805, Paris – 16 April 1859, Cannes) two-volume Democracy in America (De la démocratie en Amérique), published in 1840 and 1845, has received a great deal of attention.

The Jesuit Relations

Reuben Gold Thwaites: the Editor (portrayed to the right, below)

However, one could and perhaps should include The Jesuit Relations (73 volumes, 1896-1901), among works in which Europeans have described North America. The Jesuit Relations have been edited by Reuben Gold Thwaites, as The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France 1610-1791. Having had the privilege of reading some volumes of the Relations attentively and browsing through every volume, it is possible for me to say that Mr Thwaites’ edition is not only extremely interesting, but also quite easy to read. It has been translated into English (a parallel translation) from the French, Italian and Latin.[ii]

Richelieu and New France

Every year the Jesuits working in Canada sent a report (une relation) to their superiors in France. According to The Canadian Encyclopedia,

“[a]s a result of Cardinal Richelieu‘s decision to enlist the Jesuits in colonizing French North America, the early history of settlement was systematically and colourfully documented by priests attempting to convert the Indians and also to attract support at home for their project.”[iii]

Compilation and publication

The Jesuit Relations were compiled by missionaries “in the field,” (The Canadian Encyclopedia) edited by their Quebec superior and sent to the Paris office of the Society of Jesus. They were printed in France by Sébastien Cramoisy. These texts constitute the finest and most complete account of life in Nouvelle-France (New France) beginning in 1632, under Richelieu and Louis XIII, and ending in 1672, twelve years after Louis XIV ascended to the throne (1660).

Documents were sent after 1672, but not systematically.

Contents of the Jesuit Relations: a mixture

The Jesuits told everything. Wikipedia lists: “Marriages and Marriage Customs, Courtship, Divorce, Social Status of Women, Songs and Singing, Dances, and Games and Recreation.” The Relations are a mélange (mixture) blending the activities of Amerindians, the progress of missionaries and the daily life of settlers. Moreover, they include accounts of explorers.

Henry P. Bosse

Minneiska, Minn., 1885

Jacques Marquette, S. J. and Louis Jolliet: Explorations down the Mississippi River

Among accounts of explorers, the Jesuit Relations include a relation by Jesuit Father Jacques Marquette (1 June 1637 – 18 May 1675), who was allowed to accompany French-Canadian explorer Louis Jolliet (21 September 1645 – last seen May 1700). They founded Sault Ste. Marie (now in Ontario, Canada) and later founded St. Ignace, Michigan, in the current United States. They reported the first accurate data on the course of the Mississippi. Two years later, Père Marquette and other missionaries were the first Europeans to spend a winter near Chicago.[iv]

Voyageurs

Métis

They left from St. Ignace on 18 May 1673 with two canoes and five voyageurs of French-Amerindian ancestry (Métis) and entered the Mississippi on 19 June 1673. They travelled down the Mississippi nearly reaching the Gulf of Mexico. Two years later, Père Marquette was exposed to dysentery and died prematurely. As for Jolliet, he was not heard of after May 1700.

Conclusion

the “bon sauvage”

The Jesuit Relations are therefore eclectic and they were widely read in the 18th century as “exciting travel literature.” They are the birthplace of the “Bon Sauvage” who will be used later to provide a silent, yet eloquent, indictment of French society. They constitute an invaluable “ethnographic and documentary sources.”[v]

Sources and Resources

The Jesuit Relations.1 (Internet Archive)
The Jesuit Relations.2 (Internet Archive)
_________________________
[i] Images are from Wikipedia, unless otherwise indicated.
[ii] Lacombe, Michèle. “Jesuit Relations”. The Canadian Encyclopedia.
Toronto: Historica Canada, 2006. Web. 8 Feb 2006.
[iii] Michèle Lacombe, op. cit.
[iv] “Jacques Marquette.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/366090/Jacques-Marquette>
[v] Michèle Lacombe, op. cit.

Le Révérend Père Jacques Marquette, S. J., by Wilhelm Lamprecht

Paul Robeson – The Old Man River

Residential Schools for Canada’s Amerindians

21 Thursday May 2015

Posted by michelinewalker in Aboriginals, Canada

≈ 6 Comments

Tags

French Régime, Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement, Phil Fontaine, Prime Minister Stephen Harper, Récollets and Jesuits, Residential Schools

800px-Cloitre_recollets_Saverne(Bas_Rhin)

Former Récollet Cloister, Saverne, Alsace. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

The story of residential schools for Canadian aboriginals has two beginnings. The first is the missionary zeal of Récollets and Jesuits under the French régime. As for the second, it is the establishment of Residential Schools, which began in the 1880s. The very last of which closed its doors in 1996.

In 1966, the Canadian Government opened its Department of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, first known as the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development and, after a fiasco, the White Paper, Amerindians who had been placed in Residential Schools were slowly but progressively rehabilitated and compensated, as per the Royal Proclamation of 1763, their Magna Carta. The Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement is the largest ever paid by the government of Canada: 1.9-billion.

The French Régime

Récollets
Jesuits
Jesuit Relations (1632 – 1672)
The Canadian martyrs
Black Robe

Our narrative dates back to the French Régime, when France deployed priests to New France, Récollets (c. 1615) and Jesuits, from 1632 to 1763. The Récollets were displaced by the Jesuits. In the case of missionaries, there was no settlement, but martyrs: the eight Canadian Martyrs.

The Jesuit Relations: Martyred missionaries

The Jesuit Relations, the yearly report Jesuit missionaries sent to New France, from 1632 to 1673, tells the story of 8 missionaries tortured to death by Iroquois, except for Noël Chabanel, killed by a Huron. They are René Goupil, Isaac Jogues, Jean de Lalande, Antoine Daniel, Jean de Brébeuf, Noël Chabanel, Charles Garnier and Gabriel Lalemant. All died between 1642 and 1649. Amerindians had their own spiritual beliefs, but were being told otherwise.

Cover of the Jesuit Relations, 1632 (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Cover of the Jesuit Relations, 1662-1663 (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Black Robe, directed by Bruce Beresford (Photo credit: Google Images)

The best 0f intentions

This is a sad story because Récollets and Jesuit missionaries were convinced their religion was the only true religion and that it alone could redeem mankind, guilty of the original sin. In their eyes, they were therefore saving Amerindians.

In 1991, Bruce Beresford directed a film entitled Black Robe. It was based on a novel by Irish-Canadian author Brian Moore. It shows ambivalence on the part of Father Laforgue as to whether or not Amerindians should be converted. I had inserted a few minutes from the film, but the video has been removed. You may never find the time to see this film, but it has to be mentioned. Black Robe is an Australian and Canadian production, filmed in Quebec.

http://www.nytimes.com/1985/03/31/books/the-ordeal-of-father-laforgue.html

The Red River Colony

Thomas Douglas, 5^th Earl of Selkirk, who settled the Red River Colony, also had the best of intentions. He wanted to find land for Scottish crofters who were being displaced by their landlords and many of whom were in fact homeless. But that is another story. (See Highland Clearances, Wikipedia.)

Residential Schools

“Residential schools were government-sponsored religious schools established to assimilate Aboriginal children into Euro-Canadian culture.” (See Residential Schools, the Canadian Encyclopedia.)

They were established in 1880 by the Canadian government, and, as mentioned above, the last of these schools closed in 1996, several years after the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development was created, in 1966.

The Hope of Aboriginal Leaders

Instruction: forced, assimilative, incomplete

poorly-prepared teachers
an unbalanced curriculum
the hope of Aboriginal leaders

Persons who taught in residential schools were not necessarily trained teachers. Because these were religious schools, the curriculum often reflected the teachers’ wish to convert aboriginals to Christianity and the concomitant denigration of these children’s spiritual beliefs, the beliefs of their tribes. (See Residential Schools, the Canadian Encyclopedia.)

Consequently, by and large, children attending these schools were seldom provided with the balanced curriculum that could lead to their entering a profession. Where would pupils go upon completion of their studies in residential schools?

Therefore, although some Aboriginal leaders “hoped Euro-Canadian schooling would enable their young to learn the skills of the newcomer society and help them make a successful transition to a world dominated by the strangers” (see Residential Schools, Canadian Encyclopedia), pedagogically, there could not be a genuinely “successful transition.”

In other words, this was not lofty interculturalism, vs multiculturalism, aimed at intercultural competence. (See Interculturalism, Wikipedia.) This was acculturation and students were not immigrants to a new land. They were First Nations, Métis and Inuit students who were on their own land and were not allowed to speak their language among themselves, which was humiliating and could make them feel their language was inferior.

Their education was incomplete. In fact, children spent half the day in the classroom and the other half, working. The Canadian government relied on various Churches (Catholic, Anglican and what would be the United Church of Canada) to fund the schools. In fact,

“[a] First Nations person lost status or ceased being an Amerindian if they graduated university, became a Christian minister, or achieved professional designation as a doctor or lawyer.” (See Indian Act, Canadian Encyclopedia.)

Residential school group photograph, Regina, Saskatchewan, 1908 (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Qu’Appelle Indian Industrial School, Saskatchewan ca. 1885. Parents of First Nations children had to camp outside the gates of the residential schools in order to visit their children. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Abuse

isolation
mistreatment
physical, emotional and mental abuse
sexual abuse

Residential School, with possible exceptions, were second-rate institutions Aboriginal children were forced to enter. Many were kidnapped and once they were in school, they could not see their parents, nor members of their Reserve for long periods of time. Parents camped outside these schools in the hope of seeing their children. In many residential schools, children were not allowed to go home for the summer holidays. Being separated from their parents and community must have crippled many of these children.

Moreover, pupils were assigned dangerous menial tasks and slept in crowded dormitories. Consequently, the mortality rate among these children was alarmingly high (tuberculosis and influenza [including the Spanish flu epidemic of 1918-19]). They were poorly fed and poorly dressed. Their clothes could not keep them warm when it was cold and cool when it was too warm, which is possible even in Canada. They were physically mistreated and sexually abused, an ignominy from which very few children could recover.

Some Amerindians have fond memories of their years in Residential Schools. There are exceptions to every rule. However, former First Nations Chief Phil Fontaine does not have fond memories of the residential school he was sent to. He has yet to recover fully from mistreatment and sexual abuse. He even approached Pope Benedict XVI regarding this matter. One wonders how Chief Fontaine survived his schooling and grew to prominence. The following link takes you to a short but very perturbing interview.

http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/phil-fontaines-shocking-testimony-of-sexual-abuse

The Location of these schools

These schools were located in the central provinces of Canada, the Prairies, as well as Northwestern Ontario, Northern Quebec, and the Northwest Territories. There were no residential schools in the Maritime Provinces where natives had already, though not forcibly, been acculturated. But, although they were not status Amerindians, Métis and Inuit were also locked up in Residential Schools.

According to the Canadian Encyclopedia, an estimated 150,000 First Nations, Inuit, and Métis children were kept in residential schools and, at its peak, in 1930, there were 80 such schools.

The Royal Proclamation of 1763

So what had happened to the Royal Proclamation of 1763?

You may remember that future Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, nicknamed “the little guy from Shawinigan,” proposed assimilation in his White Paper of 1969.

If enacted, the White Paper would have abolished the Indian Act of 1876 and, by the same token, the Proclamation Act of 1763 which still protected Amerindians. Therefore, Amerindians availed themselves of their special status and the then Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development was haunted for years. At any rate, the White Paper was never signed into law.

After the Oka Crisis of 1990, a Royal Commission on Aboriginal Affairs was established.

Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau made sure the Canadian Charter or Rights and Freedoms was included in the Patriated Constitution of 1982. In the case of Amerindians, it was and it wasn’t. (See the Constitution Act 1982, Section 35, Indigenous Foundations, UBC).

Section 25 reads as follows:

25. The guarantee in this Charter of certain rights and freedoms shall not be construed as to abrogate or derogate from any aboriginal, treaty or other rights or freedoms that pertain to the aboriginal peoples of Canada including

(a) any rights or freedoms that have been recognized by the Royal Proclamation of October 7, 1763; and

(b) any rights or freedoms that now exist by way of land claims agreements or may be so acquired.

Section 35 reads as follows:

35. (1) The existing aboriginal and treaty rights of the aboriginal peoples of Canada are hereby recognized and affirmed.

(2) In this Act, “aboriginal peoples of Canada” includes the Indian, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada.

(3) For greater certainty, in subsection (1) “treaty rights” includes rights that now exist by way of land claims agreements or may be so acquired.

(4) Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, the aboriginal and treaty rights referred to in subsection (1) are guaranteed equally to male and female persons.

Note the Notwithstanding and, for clarification, See:
http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/government-policy/constitution-act-1982-section-35.html

As noted above, the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement of 2007 is the largest to be negotiated in Canadian history: $1.9-billion. Prime Minister Stephen Harper also presented a formal public apology to Chief Phil Fontaine in 2008. “Nine days prior, the Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established to uncover the truth about the schools.” (See Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement, Wikipedia.)

I am sorry our Canadian Aboriginals were practically imprisoned in Residential Schools and that it happened in my lifetime, but Canada has apologized and all is well. Would that the suffering of Amerindians did not go beyond Residential Schools, but there is more to tell.

With kindest regards to all of you. ♥

Prime Minister Stephen Harper presents the government’s official apology for residential schools to then-Assembly of First Nations Chief Phil Fontaine on June 11, 2008. (Photo credit: the Winnipeg Free Press)

Residential Schools

The Art of Kenojuak Ashevac

19 Tuesday May 2015

Posted by michelinewalker in Aboriginals, Art, Inuit

≈ 6 Comments

Tags

Dorset Culture, Inuit Art, Kenojuak Ashevac, Prints mainly

Birds over the Sun, Kenojuak Ashevac (Photo credit: LEAD Technologies Inc. V1.01)

I am researching the harm Europeans caused Aboriginals: one of the worst was the establishment of residential schools. Settlers took Aboriginal children away from their reserve and family. The schools were mainly denominational and the teachers, mostly untrained.

My thoughts were with you yesterday, but given that my refrigerator was literally empty, I had to go shopping.

When I was in the grocery store, I kept thinking: here I am, hunting!

I wanted to show my favourite Kenojuak prints.

It is now back to our Amerindians.

With kindest regards ♥

Kenojuak Ashevak – Inuit Artist

Inuit Art

17 Sunday May 2015

Posted by michelinewalker in Aboriginals, Kenojuak Ashenak

≈ 11 Comments

Tags

Carving, John Fenney, Kenojuak Ashevak, Storytelling

“This documentary shows the inspiration behind Inuit sculpture. The Inuit approach to the work is to release the image the artist sees imprisoned in the rough stone. The film centres on an old legend about the carving of the image of a sea spirit to bring food to a hungry camp.” (YouTube)

—ooo—

Inuit Art

Inuit are excellent artists. Many are carvers and make carvings using soapstone. In earlier days, their preference was for walrus ivory. Their art can be found in galleries and museums in Canada’s larger cities: Montreal, Toronto, Vancouver, Ottawa, but it seems that Winnipeg has Canada’s finest collection of Inuit art as well as several artists who draw inspiration from Inuit art. Toronto opened its Museum of Inuit Art, in 2007. But Inuit art can also be found in New York at Look North New York. (See Inuit Art)

Inuit carvings are at times very expensive, but they are one of Canada’s national treasures. I was introduced to Inuit carvings in a Toronto store. The owner was very knowledgeable. Inuit are celebrated carvers, but Inuit also produce images that are characterized by permanent newness and, at times, humour. They are heirs to Japonisme.

I chose the film shown at the top of this post not only because of its subject matter, carvings, but also because it contains a legend reflecting the legend of the mermaid. It has stories. The film was produced in 1958 by director John Fenney who also directed a film about Kenojuak Ashevak, (3 October 1927 – 8 January 2013), an acclaimed artist who worked using several media: carving, drawing, print-making, etc.

You may note that Inuit sing often, like voyageurs. They seem a very happy people. Ashevak spoke Inuktitut, the language of Nunavik (Quebec).

The National Film Board: The Land of the Long Day

The National Film Boar/l’Office national du film has a large collection of documentaries on Inuit or the north. I could not find an English-language version of Au pays des jours sans fin. It is a very informative documentary. However, I have just found it: The Land of the Long Day: https://www.nfb.ca/film/land_of_the_long_day.

But let us see a few carvings and, in a short video, the art of Kenojuak and colleagues. Kenojuak is the most celebrated Inuit printmaker (stencils or pochoirs). She died in 2003, at the age of 85.

Inuit Art Muskox by Seepee Ipellie, Cape Dorset, 1980 (freespirtgallery.ca)

Inuit Art Caribou by Osuitok Ipeelee (freespiritgallery.ca)

Bear (looknorthny.com)

Sources and Resources

Inuit Art (Wikipedia), which leads to several entries
The Canadian Encyclopedia
The Museum of Civilization, Gatineau Ottawa (freespiritgallery.ca)
History of Cape Dorset and the West Baffin Co-operative
http://www.learningcentre.coop/resource/history-cape-dorset-and-west-baffin-co-operative
The Land of the Long Day (EN) (Au pays des jours sans fin): found
https://www.nfb.ca/film/land_of_the_long_day.

My kindest regards to all of you. ♥

Cape Dorset, Kenojuak Ashevak (EN)

Au pays des jours sans fin

16 Saturday May 2015

Posted by michelinewalker in Aboriginals, Art, Canada

≈ 2 Comments

Tags

Au pays des jours sans fin, Baffin Island, Beluga Whales, Douglas Wilkinson, Hunting, Inuit Art, Land of the Long Day, Narwhals, Nuvanut, Seals

Inuit Art, The Province

http://www.theprovince.com/entertainment/Inuit+Roadshow/9472655/story.html
https://www.nfb.ca/film/land_of_the_long_day

Baffin Island, Nuvanut

In the land of endless days

“Documentaire sur les Inuits de la terre de Baffin, pendant le court été arctique, qu’ils mettent à profit pour faire leurs provisions en vue du long hiver à venir. Dans la région de Pont Inlet dans l’île d’Alukseevee, les Inuits Tununermiut chassent le phoque ainsi que le narval et le béluga. Nous rencontrons la famille d’un chasseur, dont chaque membre a un rôle à jouer.”

(Documentary on the Inuit of Baffin Island. On the island of Alukseevee, Tununermiut Inuit take advantage of a brief summer to prepare their supplies for the long winter ahead. They hunt for seals, as well as narwhals (le narval; FR) and beluga whales (le béluga). We meet a hunter in whose family every one has a role to play.)

Narwhals have a long tusk. As for seals, in French, they are called phoques (pronounced ‘fuck’). Using that word in an English-speaking environment can be somewhat dangerous. My sister and I shocked two ladies when we exclaimed: “Quels beaux phoques!” (What beautiful seals!) during a visit to Vancouver’s Stanley Park.

Kindest regards to everyone. ♥

https://www.nfb.ca/film/land_of_the_long_day (EN)

Aboriginals in Canada

14 Thursday May 2015

Posted by michelinewalker in Aboriginals, Canada, First Nations, Inuit, Métis

≈ 9 Comments

Tags

Aboriginals, Alfred Jacob Miller, Amerindian, First Nations, Indian Act, Indian Register, Inuit, Métis, Nunavut, Walters Art Museum

“Bourgeois” W—r, and His Squaw, Alfred Jacob Miller (Courtesy Walters Art Museum, Baltimore)

“Apparently we have administered the vast territories of the north in an almost continuing absence of mind.”
Louis Saint-Laurent (12th Prime Minister of Canada)

—ooo—

The quotation above suggests that Canada has neglected its Inuit, known as Eskimos (Esquimaux; FR). It did, until 1939.

“In 1939, the Supreme Court of Canada found, in a decision known as Re Eskimos, that the Inuit should be considered Indians and were thus under the jurisdiction of the federal government.” (See Inuit, Wikipedia.)

Matters have changed as the stories of Nunavut and Nunavik confirm. Nunavut is now a separate part of Northern Canada. As for Nunavik, it is Northern Quebec, but Inuit also live in Labrador-Newfoundland (pronounced New-fen-land) (Terre-Neuve; FR) as well as Alaska (US), Siberia (Russia), and Greenland (Denmark). We will deal with Canadian Inuit only.

In English, the word Inuit is the plural form of Inuk, but in French one says un Inuit (singular) and des Inuits (plural). Esquimaux is the plural form of Esquimau.

Presents to Indians by Alfred Jacob Miller (Courtesy Walters Art Museum, Baltimore)

North American “Indians”

Let us begin at the beginning.

According to the Canadian Encyclopedia (see Indian), it seems Christopher Columbus, known as the discoverer of America (1492 CE), was the first person to use the term “Indian.” He may have thought he had discovered India, as would Jacques Cartier in 1534 CE. At any rate, the term spread to include nearly all American Aboriginals, with the probable exception of Eskimos (Esquimaux; FR).

People have started using the words Aboriginal and Amerindian (Autochtone et Amérindien-ne) with respect to “Indians.” However, although Eskimo has become a pejorative descriptor in the eyes of Inuit, Aboriginals may still be referred to as Indians, but less so as Eskimos, in the case of Inuit …

Groups of Canadian aboriginals

In Canada, there are three groups of recognized Aboriginals:

the First Nations, bands living all over Canada;
the Métis (mixed blood), the descendants of voyageurs (French mainly, but also Scottish or Irish) who married Amerindians and live mainly in what is now Manitoba (from Manitou);
the Inuit, the inhabitants of Nunavut (Northwest Territories) and Nunavik (Northern Quebec and Labrador).

Until recently, however, only First Nations Amerindians were status Amerindians, most of whom lived on Indian reserves.

According to the census of 2011, Canada totaled 1,400,685 people, or 4.3% of the national population. These are “spread over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands with distinctive cultures, languages, art, and music.” (See Aboriginal peoples in Canada, Wikipedia.)

Images: Alfred Jacob Miller (2 January 1810 – 26 June 1874)
Crossing the North Fork of the Platte River (Courtesy Walters Art Museum)
Indian Girl with Papoose Crossing Stream (Courtesy Walters Art Museum)

Crossing the North Fork of the Platte River, AJ Miller

Indian Girl with Papoose Crossing Stream, AJ Miller

Governance

The Indian Act
The Indian Register
status Amerindians
The Department of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada

The rights of Amerindians in Canada were first recognized by George III, king of the United Kingdom, in his Royal Proclamation of 1763. Members of the Royal family still receive gifts from Amerindians who feared that having lost the protection of the French, who offered gifts, settlers would invade their land and endanger their life. The genocide of Amerindians could well be the worst ever. They were massacred. England drew a proclamation line behind which the aboriginals of its new colony would be secure. A Royal Proclamation also protected Britain’s French-speaking subjects.

As you know, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 was of a temporary nature, but it was reaffirmed in the Constitution Act (1867). However, the Indian Act, passed in 1876, harmed Amerindians in that its aim was enfranchisement or assimilation. The Indian Act is a “Canadian statute that concerns registered Indians, their bands, and the system of Indian reserves.” (See Indian Act, Wikipedia.) The rights of Amerindians were reaffirmed in the Canada Act (1982), a document which includes the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

“[T]he Constitution Act, 1982 entrenched in the Constitution of Canada all the rights granted in native treaties and land claims agreements enacted before 1982, giving the rights outlined in the original agreement the status of constitutional rights.” (See James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement, Wikipedia.)

Note the word “registered.” The Indian Register has been the list of status or registered Amerindians. Status Amerindians are First Nations Amerindians. Métis are in the process of becoming status Amerindians, but …

Status Amerindians have certain rights and privileges:

“the granting of reserves and of rights associated with them, an extended hunting season, a less restricted right to bear arms, an exemption from federal and provincial taxes, and more freedom in the management of gaming and tobacco franchises via less government interference and taxes.” (See Indian Register, Wikipedia.)

In Ottawa, Aboriginals are under the jurisdiction of the Department of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AANDC), Affaires autochtones et du développement du Nord canadien, AADNC, formerly named the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. However, not all aboriginals are considered status Aboriginals. As noted above, the Métis have only begun to gain recognition.

http://www.cbc.ca/news/aboriginal/court-of-appeal-upholds-landmark-ruling-on-rights-of-m%C3%A9tis-1.2613834

Greenland Eskimo (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Canadian inuit

Inuit were also latecomers. They were not recognized as aboriginals until 1939 and are not status Amerindians. There are four groups of Inuit, two of which live in Nunavut and Nunavik.

Nunavut

Furthermore, Inuit have only recently been associated with a particular territory and a particular language. Nunavut did not become a separate territory until 1 April 1999. On that day, it was separated officially from the Northwest Territories via the Nunavut Act and the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act. Nunavut’s Inuit speak Inuvialuktun.

Nunavik (Québec)

In theory, the federal government has sole jurisdiction over Aboriginals,

“Section 91 (clause 24) of the Constitution Act, 1867 gives the federal government (as opposed to the provinces) the sole responsibility for “Indians, and Lands reserved for the Indians”. The government inherited treaty obligations from the British colonial authorities in Eastern Canada and signed treaties itself with First Nations in Western Canada (the Numbered Treaties).” (See Aboriginal peoples in Canada, Wikipedia.)

Nunavik, however, is a community of Québec Inuit who speak Inuktitut. They are protected as per the Royal Proclamation of 1763.

In the 1960s, Quebec started developing hydroelectric resources in the north. It built the Manicouagan Reservoir and, in 1971, it created the James Bay Development Corporation to “pursue the development of mining, forestry and other potential resources starting with James Bay Hydroelectric Project, without consulting the native people.” The Quebec Association of Indians “sued the government and on 15 November 1973 won an injunction in the Quebec Superior Court blocking hydroelectric development until the province had negotiated an agreement with the natives.” The injunction was overruled, but in the end Quebec had to sit at the negotiation table. (See James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement, Wikipedia.)

At the moment, Québec has its own Assemblée des Premières Nations du Québec et du Labrador (APNQL) and its Inuit live in Nunavik, Northern Quebec. Inuktitut, the language spoken by the inhabitants of Nunavik, is an officially recognized language under the Charter of the French Language (Bill 101; 1977).

Nunavut

Nunavik (Québec)

The Métis

We have discussed the Métis, both in voyageur posts (see Canadiana 1) and telling the story of Louis Riel.

Riel’s story is a testimonial with respect to the hurdles Aboriginals had to face, the worst of which was assimilation. So I will break here and deal with assimilative measures that could have led to the destruction of Canada’s Amerindians. I am certain that former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien sought the welfare of aboriginals in his 1969 White Paper, but abolishing the Indian Act would have resulted in the disappearance of Canadian Amerindians. They protested.

Inuit are now educated in their own mother tongue, but climate changes are threatening their livelihood. They use kayaks instead of canoes. Martin Frobisher was the first European to meet an Inuit.

With kindest regards to all of you. ♥

RELATED ARTICLES

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 (Indigenous Foundations) (6 May 2015)
Louis Riel as a Father of Confederation (22 May 2013)
The Week in Review & Louis Riel Revisited (20 January 2013)
Sir Martin Frobisher as Privateer and Hero to his Queen (26 November 2012)

Sources and Resources

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (25)
Aboriginal Peoples in Canada: First Nation Peoples, Métis and Inuit
1969 White Paper
James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement
James Bay = la Jamésie

Inuit
Beate von Horn, producer
Mari Boine Persen (Norwegian Sami singer)
translation – Vuoi Vuoi Mu, Idjagiedas

The Art of Asher Brown Durand

13 Wednesday May 2015

Posted by michelinewalker in Art, United States

≈ 10 Comments

Tags

Asher Brown Durand, Haydn's Serenade, Hudson River School, The Catskills

The Catskills by Asher Brown Durand, 1859 (Courtesy of the Walters Art Museum)

My computer does not work well enough for me to post anything other than a picture and a few words. It has been “repaired,” but I believe I will have to replace it.

So I am sending a picture and my kindest regards. ♥